Evaluation of the Vocational Training System in Qatar’s Public Sector
Info: 95314 words (381 pages) Dissertation
Published: 10th Dec 2019
Tagged: International Studies
The concept of policing a state has had to undergo a change of mindset due to the global nature of today’s world. There was anecdotal evidence that the training was outdated and did not take into account the cross cultural differences that exist in Qatar. This study investigates this hypothesis and evaluates the quality of training at the Police Training Institute in Qatar After conducting an exhaustive literature review covering cross cultural differences, systems thinking and different delivery methods a methodological evaluation of public sector training was conducted using the Soft Systems Methodology of Professor Peter Checkland.
The key findings to come out of the SSM Analysis were: the police training did not meet the participants’ expectations, course content failed to provide trainees with new skills, the delivery of the courses lacks interaction and courses were not useful or challenging. A conceptual model was developed that dealt with:
- new content
- cultural differences and;
- new delivery methods
A new course was designed, delivered, tested and evaluated. This was a course on Systems Thinking. Also a App was designed for mobile phones which enabled the course to be delivered in a more modern manner which used the concept of social media.
The final analysis showed that the Systems Thinking ideas were well received and more courses need to be designed at all levels. It suggested that there is a future for mobile technology in training and it encouraged organisations to experiment with this form of delivery. Recommendations were made for future training at the Police Training Institute and these were well received by the Ministry of Interior of Qatar .
It also suggests that the PTI is an ideal candidate for a learning organisation, which would help it to understand what is happening in the outside environment and produce creative solutions using the knowledge and skills of all within the organization
Acknowledgement
I would like to extend my gratitude to all my colleagues at the Ministry of Interior and The Prime Minister & Minister of Interior Sheikh Abdulla Bin Naser Aal Thani who encouraged and supported me to do this thesis.
Particular thanks are due to Professor Moscardini for his supervision, insight and dedication over a long period of time.
My warmest appreciation to Professor Mohamed Loutfi, Vice-chancellor of Cardiff Metropolitan University for his care and advice.
My special thanks are also due to all participants for their patience, understanding and generous love during work on interviews.
Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to my beloved parents and home country Qatar.
Hamad Al Kaabi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Background to the Research
2.1.2 Characteristics of Effective Course Content
2.2.1 Theoretical Frameworks Relevant to ‘Cultural Differences’
2.2.2 Studies That Focus on Cultural Differences Relevant to Learning & Training
2.3.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of SSM
2.3.5 SSM Applications in Learning Environments
2.4 Systems Thinking and the Learning Organization
2.4.1 The Concept of Systems Thinking
2.4.2. The Concept of Systems Dynamics (SD)
2.5 Delivery of Training Courses
2.5.1 The Role of ICT in Learning and Vocational Training
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
3.3 Research Design – Use of a Pluralistic Approach
3.3.1 SSM with Case Study and Action Research
3.3.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Strategies
3.5 Research Procedures Adopted for the Present Study
3.6 Research Aims and Objectives
Chapter 4 Soft System Analysis of the Problem
4.2 Stage One of SSM – The Methodological Evaluation
4.2.1 Results of the Analysis of Data Obtained from the Questionnaire
4.2.2 Results of the Analysis of Data Obtained from the first set of Semi-Structured Interviews
4.3 Stage 2 of SSM: Problem Situation Expressed (Rich Picture)
4.4 Stage 3 of SSM: Problem Orientated Root Definitions
4.4.1 Problem-oriented Root Definitions
4.4.2 Formulation of Performance Measures
4.5 Stage 4 Creation of a Conceptual Model
4.6 Stage 5 Comparison with the Real World
4.6.3 Methods of Delivery of Training Courses
4.7 Stage 6 Identification of Changes
Chapter 5 Response to the Soft System Analysis
5.1.1 Course to Test Cultural Differences and Teaching Skills
5.1.2 Evaluation of Changed Teaching Style to Reflect Cultural Differences
5.1.3 Evaluation of New Delivery Method
5.1.4 Course to Test New Content
5.2.1 Session One – Perception
5.2.2 Session Two – Ways of Thinking
5.2.3 Session Three – Problem Solving
5.3.1 Session Four – Different Paradigms
5.3.2 Session Five – The Systems Paradigm
5.3.3 Session Six – Cybernetic Principles
5.4 Part Three: Thinking Tools
5.4.1 Session Seven – Causal Modelling
5.4.2 Session Eight – Systems Dynamic Modelling
5.4.3 Session Nine – The Learning Organisation
5.5 Evaluation of the New Course
5.6 Discussion of Cultural Differences for the Course
Chapter 6 New Methods of Training Delivery
6.2 The Population and Technology Environment MENA (Middle East and North Africa) Region.
6.2.1 Population Demographics & Technology Penetration
6.2.2 Mobile and General Technology Usage in the Middle East
6.2.4 Choosing a Device for Training Delivery
6.3 Developments in Training Technologies and Approach
6.4 Mobile Application Concept Overview and Considerations
6.4.5 Project Lifecycle and Schedule
6.4.6 Requirements Planning – APP Design Focus
6.4.7 Architecture Overview and Main Components
6.5 Planned Usage Mapped to App Design
6.5.2 Planned Usage Measures Against the Design
6.8.2 My Profile Screen and Progress
6.8.4 Share Learning and Comments
6.8.7 Early Design Qualification by Potential Users
6.8.8 App Distribution and Consumption
6.9 Evaluation of the Use of Apps in Training
6.9.1 The use of App in delivering a course
6.9.2 The readability of the “notes”
6.9.3 The ability to communicate within the group at anytime and anywhere
6.9.4 The ability to communicate within the group at anytime and anywhere
6.9.5. The availability of feedback (trainer only)
6.9.6. Feedback on the general idea of using the App
6.10.1 Deployment Options and Financial Considerations
Chapter 7 Summary, Recommendations and Further Actions
7.5 Achievement of the Objectives
B. Survey Questionnaire 1 (Pre-Test)
C. Survey Questionnaire (Post-Test)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Summary of the Results of the Literature Review on Course Content
Table 2.4 Literature Review Matrix of the Definitions and Connotations of SSM
Table 2.5 Literature Review Matrix Relevant to the Purpose of SSM
Table 2.6 Literature Review Matrix of the Strengths and Weaknesses of SSM
Table 2.7 Literature Review Matrix Relevant to SSM Applications in Learning Systems
Table 2.8 Summary of the Results of Literature Review Related to the Systems Thinking Concept
Table 2.9 Summary of the Results of the Literature Review Related to the Concept of SD
Table 2.10 Summary of Literature Review Results Related to the Different Applications of SD
Table 3.1 Various Features of the Positivist and Phenomenological Paradigms
Table 4.1 Summary of the Results of Statistics of the Pre-Test Likert- Scale Questions
Table 4.2 Summary of the Results of Statistics of the Post -Test Likert- Scale Questions
Table 4.5 Action Plan Incorporating the Objectives, Relevant Tasks, Tome Frame and Success Criteria
Table 6.2 Tablet Sales Predictions for 2013, 2014 and 2015
Table 6.3 Planned Usage Measures Against the Design
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework of the Present Study – Seven Stages Version of SSM
Figure 3.1 Research Methodology of the Present Study
Figure 4.1 Rich Picture of the Problems of Vocational Training in Qatar’s Public Sector
Figure 5.1 Multiple Viewpoints
Figure 5.2 General Methodology for Solving Problems
Figure 5.5 Model Identification
Figure 5.12 Expanded Feedback Loop
Figure 5.13 Feedback Loop of Pressure on the Jails
Figure 5.15 Feedback Loops of Petroleum Drilling
Figure 5.16 Generic Structure Producing Overshoot And Collapse (With A Non-Renewable Resource)
Figure 6.1 Mobile Usage in MENA Source: FrootApps (2013)
Figure 6.2 Snapshot of Technology Service Usage in MENA Q2 2014
Figure 6.3 Tablet Adoption Rates for Desktop PC and Tablets in Selected Countries
Figure 6.4 Smartphone Adoption Rates Around the World
Figure 6.5 Global MEMS Unit Shipment by Consumer Electronics Device, 2006-1013
Figure 6.6 Projected Move to Communicating in Smaller And More Focused Groups
Figure 6.7 RAD Lifecycle Approach
Figure 6.8 Early Architechtural Design
Figure 6.11 My Profile and Progress Screens
Figure 6.14 Training Comments Screens
Figure 7.1 Process Flow Chart of the Research Aims and Objectives of the Present Study
Figure 7.2 Letter from the Ministry of Interior
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background to the Research
Flouris and Yilmaz (2010) argue that an “effective management of human resource-based risks is a cornerstone factor” of organisational success. Similarly, PricewaterhouseCoopers (2008), an internationally- successful advisory service, emphasise that addressing human factor-based risks are crucial for the success of the organisation. In fact, they maintained that it is critical to place ‘people’ at the heart of any system. Indeed, Aloini, Dulmin and Mininno (2007) elucidate that inadequate training of employees is one of the main risks associated with human factors. Bhattacharya and Wright (2005) maintain that within the context of today’s market conditions, “the pervasiveness of complex technology in all spheres of business and the fast rate of change in technology create greater risks that an employee is unable to keep up with these changes or is unable to learn new skills.” They also argue that employee skills must be continuously upgraded and that employees must be provided with new growth opportunities in order for them to learn them. Subramanian, Sinha, and Gupta (2012) recommend that training programs also be used to match employee skills to organisational needs. In the same vein, Hartmann et al. (2010) recommended that talent management strategies should focus on recruiting and retaining “highly qualified employees, who are offered higher wages, better job opportunities, a better quality of life and stronger R&D facilities.” Hence, the importance of training and continuous professional development cannot be undermined.
In 1970, Nadler coined the term ‘human resource development’ and provided a model, which featured three components, namely: training, education, and development (Nadler & Nadler, 1991). Since Nadler’s inception of the term, a dichotomous approach to HRD has emerged: on one side was a learning and development paradigm that focused on the enhancement of training and development (Garavan, Heraty & Barnicle,1999); and on the other, a performance outcomes paradigm which focused on developing individuals to enhance organisational performance outcomes (Swanson & Holton, 2001). However, Simmonds and Pedersen (2006) contended that “HRD is a combination of structured and unstructured learning and performance-based activities which develop individual and organisational competency, capability and capacity to cope with and successfully manage change.”
A significant number of contributions have highlighted the various challenges that the public sector had to overcome in the last two decades (McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). These challenges were largely anchored on the following issues, namely: an ageing workforce, cost-effective delivery of services, restructuring, and leadership talent shortages (O’Brien, 2010; Whittington & Campion-Smith, 2010; McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). Such premium placed on cost-efficiency in the public sector in the US and the UK since the 1980s and the 1990s, have driven public sector institutions to utilise and implement more ‘business-like’ practices in organisational management (McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). Such a trend in adopting more ‘business-like’ practices in organisational management has been further reinforced by the global economic downturn which has been characterised by budget cuts throughout the UK and Canada, subsequently giving rise to the ‘new public management’ which was centered on efficiency and effectiveness (McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). However, it has been documented by various researchers that public sector professionals were mostly not adequately trained to effectively collaborate in such an exigent setting (McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). It is in this context that Coxhead at al. (2010) explicate that “it is not surprising that government departments and other public sector professionals are constantly looking for ways to develop the skills of their managers and future leaders.”
As explicated by Fernandez and Rainey (2006), “reform initiatives have swept through governments in the United States and overseas, again and again bringing news about efforts to reinvent, transform, or reform government agencies.” Part of such transformation is the premium placed on training public sector employees for increased organisational efficiency and performance (Coxhead at al., 2010; McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). The correlation between training and public service efficiency has been anchored on the premise that human capital (e.g. knowledge, skills, and behaviour) strengthens the importance of people-related competences that are linked with the ‘new public management’ construct.
Indeed, the important role of training in raising the performance of public sector organisations has generated mainstream political support since the 1980s, particularly in most industrialised nations (Laferty & Roan, 2000). In Australia, policy makers have underscored the critical role that its national skills base plays in the achievement of international competitiveness leading to the restructuring of its workforce training programs and institutions since the early 1980s (Laferty & Roan, 2000). Canada’s public sector at present, is using talent management to “recruit and retain highly-trained, qualified staff”. Part of its talent management is the training of public sector employees which is considered “central to public service renewal and success […]” (Glenn, 2012).
In Germany (since 1969 and by virtue of its Work Support Act) there has been a consistent yearly increase in the amount of public resources being allocated for the support of vocational training by the Federal Labor Office. After the 1990 reunification, “due to the large effects of the transformation process on the labor market, public vocational training played an even more important role in the eastern part of Germany” (Hujer & Wellner, 2000). During such time, Germany wisely utilized its strong support for training and considered it “a very important instrument of active labor market policy attempting to increase productivity and to reduce unemployment” (Fitzenberger & Prey, 2000). Since then, training has been viewed as one of the most important and promising components of Germany’s labour market policies —mirroring the case of many continental European countries which “used active labour market policies as important tools for reducing Europe’s notoriously high levels of unemployment without the painful side effects of substantial market reforms” (Lechner, Miquel & Wunsch, 2011).
In the UK, “the provision of world class services remains at the heart of the current government’s political strategy” as has been reflected in government spending data which showed substantial and consistent increase in public services expenditures (Murphy et al., 2008). Indeed, findings of a study conducted by Murphy et al. (2008) indicate that a significant training advantage exists for public sector workers due to “social externalities, alternative behavioral objectives, tax appropriation, job security, hierarchical wage structures, differences in wage dispersion, rent sharing and worker sorting ” .
In the same vein, Qatar’s public sector management is centered on the attainment of an efficient delivery of public services. As clearly explicated in the official website of the Qatar National Project Management (QNPM):
Qatar is developing and growing with clear vision and strategy. Qatar’s public service is at the forefront, improving infrastructure, modernizing services, and helping to take its place in the international community. Like governments around the world, Qatar’s public service is increasingly focused on effective, efficient delivery that will support continued success and prosperity. Qatar has many important projects underway, and there are more to come (‘Qatar’, 2007).
Indeed, included in Qatar’s National Development Strategy 2011−2016 are the intended reforms for its vocational training system which include the following plans , namely: (1) strengthening technical education and vocational training; (2) developing “an organizational model for technical education and vocational training” and building the required capabilities; (3) developing “a regulatory framework to align technical education and vocational training with the education sector and labour market needs”; (4) aligning “technical education and vocational training programmes and outputs with the needs of society and the labour market”; and (5) increasing “the prominence of technical education and vocational training programmes” (‘Qatar National Development Strategy 2011~2016’, 2011, pp.140-143).
However, despite the strides that governments around the world have taken in order to achieve the goal of public service efficiency through the adoption of ‘business-like’ practices in organisational management, the wide array of challenges brought about by dynamically-changing environments made achieving the aforementioned goal difficult (OECD, 2008). The OECD (2008) explicates the difficulties faced by public sector institutions around the world:
Personnel systems are becoming less adaptive to these new challenges. Indeed, traditional practices in public administration are the product of a different context with different priorities. Now, governments have a new role in society and are taking on new responsibilities but generally without the necessary tools to manage them effectively. Public managers are expected to improve the performance of their organisations focusing on efficiency, effectiveness, and propriety which were not the priorities 50 years ago. Therefore, to be able to respond to a changing environment the public sector has to transform its structures, processes, procedures, and above all, its culture” (OECD, 2008).
It is in this context that the extant situation of the vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector needs to be understood, thereby requiring a thorough examination of the current situation of the aforementioned vocational training system using an appropriate methodological framework such as the Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). The utility of SSM in problem structuring has been highlighted in extant literature (Goddard et al., 1994). SSM has been found to possess an intrinsically evaluatory characteristic which helps improve problematical situations by bringing about a systematic assessment of the current situation and then prescribing the desirable changes that must be made (Kayrooz & Trevitt, 2005). In addition to the aforementioned benefits of using SSM to diagnose the problems affecting the vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector, SSM has also been recognized to be useful for dealing with real-world problems of management associated with learning and systems design (Checkland & Scholes, 1990; Reid et al., 1999; Hindle, 2011; Hardman and Paucar-Caceres, 2011).
1.2 Need for This Study
Qatar has recently undergone a massive reform of the structure of its ministries and state institutions that comprise its public sector to improve the quality and effectiveness of their civil service. This was evidenced by the consistent promotion of ongoing vocational training of all public sector employees. However, such training is almost exclusively based on Western theory and practice. Yet Arab countries have their own distinctive national culture and practices and there is a significant danger that culturally- inappropriate training will affect all stakeholders in government services. As Lewis (2006) notes:
“Westerners and Arabs have very different views about what is right and wrong, good and evil, logical and illogical, acceptable and unacceptable. They live in two different worlds each organised in its own manner. (Lewis, 2006). To be most effective, any government must serve the local population and all its other stakeholders. However, it must do so in a way that is deemed acceptable to the majority served and be seen to reflect the culture of its people. If a significant perceived gap arises between civil service culture and local culture, a great danger is the potential alienation of its civil society. Each of the trends towards overseas training and education potentially widens the cultural gap between Qatari civil servants and the people they serve. Western practice has been exported around the world, including the Gulf Region and Qatar. Often this is spread by training. Yet in the last thirty years, researchers have increasingly noted a strong influence of local culture on many areas of business and organisational practice. “
There is no universally- agreed definition of culture amongst social scientists. Various leading researchers have defined culture in different ways. In the GLOBE Project (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House, 2007, House et al., 2008), researchers from 38 countries came together to develop a collective understanding They defined it as: “shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of significant events that result from common experience of members of collectives and are transmitted across age generations”
A well -established cultural theory posits that that each group or category of people carries with it a set of common mental programmes that create its national culture. Each of the major studies and many minor studies confirm this and are closely correlated (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Culturally, the Western world — which is largely represented by Americans, British and Northern Europeans — and the Arab world — are widely separated and clearly delineated. This significantly complicates the interchange of ideas (Lewis, 2006). Importing essentially alien methods of management, education and training go a long way to institutionalising the effects of any westernisation of public services. The result is that pressures to conform to an alternative culture are creating strong resistance and an even stronger trend towards national cultural identity.
When studies exist, other states within the region, notably Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and UAE, have received far more specific attention than Qatar. Even so, the region has long been regarded as displaying a strong common culture (Lewis, 2006). This is because of a common history and the overwhelming influence of Islam in every facet of personal and organisational life in the region (Adler, 2002). This has led to a strong Arab identity, especially in the Gulf, helped by institutions such as the influential Qatar based Al-Jazeera broadcaster. As a result, world-renowned cultural theorists such as Lewis (2006), Trompenaars and Hampden Turner (1997), and Hofstede (1980, 1991) and many other authors use the allusion “the Arab World” to refer to the individual Gulf states . This facilitates the generalisation and application of research findings to “the Arab World” as a whole.
Welsh and Raven (2006) note that in the Gulf region, family and religious values probably have a major influence on the way organisations are managed. This makes them fundamentally different from public services in the OECD countries. Yet the trend towards overseas education and training potentially widens the cultural gap between Qatari civil servants and the people they serve. This has become a matter of serious concern to people in Qatar and elsewhere in the Gulf (Al Kaabi, 2007). Indeed, the Qatar National Vision 2030 (GSDP, 2008) clearly states that the:
Preservation of cultural traditions is a major challenge that confronts many societies in a rapidly globalizing and increasingly interconnected world […]. Qatar’s rapid economic and population growth have created intense strains between the old and new in almost every aspect of life.(GSDP, 2008).
In this thesis, the term ‘training’ has the narrow meaning of vocational training. Thus defined, training improves the skills and knowledge needed for a particular job function or trade. This might include continued professional development (CPD) but not taking the professional qualifications themselves. It might take the form of practical training, a short course, or sometimes full-time or part-time study in a University or College. The latter will not include academic courses such as recognised degrees and higher degrees. The need is therefore to improve the vocational training to help Qatar utilise its workforce to the fullest extent.
1.3 Plan of the Thesis
The thesis consists of seven chapters and appendices.
Chapter One gives the background to the research problem and describes the general aim and the need for this research.
Chapter Two is the literature review. This covers a discussion on training in general, cross-cultural differences especially related to training, methods of analysis in particular the Soft Systems methodology, choice of content for new courses, different methods of delivery, Systems thinking and the Learning Organisation.
Chapter Three describes the research methodology: namely the research philosophy, the research design and the research procedures. A research aim and objectives are formulated and the originality of the research discussed. The chapter finishes with discussions of the ethical considerations involved.
Chapter Four describes the application of the Soft Systems methodology to the problem of training in Qatar. This results in a Rich Picture, a set of performance measures and a clear exposition of the problem. The major recommendations were to produce new courses and different delivery methods.
Chapter Five describes, in detail, a new course in Systems thinking which was specifically designed for the top management in the public Sector in Qatar. It also evaluates the course using the agreed performance measures.
Chapter Six examines the use of mobile phone technology for the delivery of courses in Qatar. The researcher commissioned a software company to produce a prototype according to his specifications and design, which was then tested on a selected audience.
Chapter Seven summarises the result of this work and details recommendations for improvement of the public service training in Qatar..
Chapter 2 Literature Review
The present study aims to investigate the vocational training system at the ministries in Qatar and to suggest recommendations for its improvement. To achieve such aim, the present study begins by conducting a literature review relevant to training, cultural differences, soft systems methodology (SSM) and systems thinking.
During the conduct of the review, the following dominant themes relevant to the present study emerged, namely: (1) variations in training; (2) cultural differences which include the different frameworks that are focused on cultural differences, studies that focus on cultural differences relevant to learning and training; (3) the SSM concept; (4) innovative course content which included the systems thinking concept and its application and utility in training; and (5) methods of delivery of training courses which include the role of ICT in learning and vocational training.
The structure of this section is as follows: First, results of the review pertinent to training are presented. This will be followed by a discussion of the following topics: (1) course content, which include the characteristics of effective course content, systems thinking concept and its application and utility in training; (2) cultural differences, which include the different frameworks that are focused on cultural differences, as well as studies that focus on cultural differences relevant to learning and training; (3) the SSM concept, the purpose or goal of SSM, the SSM paradigm, the strengths and weaknesses of SSM, and the application of SSM in learning systems; (4) systems thinking and systems dynamics; and (5) methods of delivery of training courses which include the role of ICT in learning and vocational training.
2.1 Training
Qatar has its economy deeply rooted in oil — particularly in natural gas production. However, like other states in the Arabian Gulf region, Qatar is currently diversifying its economy. Its medium and long-term ambitions are to create the capacity to compete on an international and global level with a much more varied economy. This has invariably meant significant changes in people’s attitudes, especially in business and government. Vocational training has long been seen as a means of improving Qatar’s public services.
While Qatar has recognised the importance of training, the picture on training provision is mixed. There are numerous training centres attached to various ministries and government institutions. Both private and public sectors use various bespoke training courses, while government officials regularly attend training programs organised by internationally- known organisations (GSDP, 2007). Most seem to offer mainly Western style training courses. GSDP (2007) admits that: “officials still a lack necessary expertise to undertake higher tasks they lack skills needed to develop themselves, despite their multiple participation in training.”
One institution that is highly involved in public sector training is the Institute of Administrative Development (IAD). The IAD was originally established by Law No. (6) of 1997, although its origins goes back to 1964 as the Institute for Administration. The IAD has for some time, been one of the main official centres of expertise of public services in Qatar. It offers training courses in three major areas, namely: administration, finance and information technology (IAD, 2011a). The IAD has being reorganised three times. The first time was in 1997 under Law No. (6) of 1997. Later, under Decree Law No. (27) of 2007. Its role was expanded to training for administrative development. More recently under Emiri Decision (56) of 2009, IAD’s role was made to be closely aligned with the Qatar National Vision 2030 (QNV2030) (GSDP, 2008).
In its 2010-2011 planning handbook (IAD, 2010), the IAD makes a firm link between QNV 2030 and its development programmes. It now offers courses at three management levels and aims to collaborate with ministries, government departments and bodies and public institutions. The IAD fortifies its international links and collaboration with international partners including European and American organisations (IAD, 2011a). Indeed, a specialist independent ‘Co-operation Unit’ has now been created to strengthen overseas links (IAD, 2011b). The IAD now undoubtedly stands at the heart of the public sector training system in Qatar. The boundaries of this training system will be examined and analysed in terms of its ‘sphere of influence’. This will be established by reviewing and analysing:
- Extant literature comprised by empirical research and related studies, etc. that have emerged over the course of the past two decades that delve on the role of education and training in enhancing public administration effectiveness/efficiency;
- The contribution of the Institute of Administrative Development (IAD) established under Emiri Decision (56) of 2009 as the official ‘hub’ of expertise in the State of Qatar; and
- The evolution of discourses regarding public sector training as the key concept in interpreting and redefining knowledge for the realization of an accountable, transparent, effective and efficient public service.
Despite the relatively growing number of academic studies in the region that delve on vocational training, Only a few studies have addressed the subject of public sector training, especially within the context of Qatar. Hence, this study is envisaged to significantly add to the body of knowledge available in this field for researchers, policy makers and practitioners in the Gulf.
Within the context of the present study, the term ‘training’ is taken to mean vocational training. Thus defined, training improves the skills and knowledge needed for a particular job function or trade. This might include continued professional development (CPD) but not taking the professional qualifications themselves. It might take the form of practical training, a short course, or sometimes full-time or part-time study in a university or college. The latter will not include academic courses such as recognised degrees and higher degrees.
The boundaries provided by Buyens and Wouters (2005) will be used to decide whether a particular training programme was excluded from the research. Buyens and Wouters (2005) suggest the following conditions for public sector training programmes: ‘decision’, ‘objectives’, ‘employees’ and ‘financing’. A training programme should result only from a ‘decision’ taken by the enterprise to offer training. The primary ‘objective’ must be to enable the participant to gain new competencies or develop existing ones. Basic familiarisation programmes for the job, organisation or working environment such as induction programmes do not fall within the given classification. The ‘employee’ condition will be met only if the person undertaking training has a working contract with the employer sponsoring training. People such as apprentices or those receiving special training will not be included. Finally, to fall within the survey population, the training activity should be ‘financed’ partly or entirely by the concerned ministry, whether directly by the provider or indirectly by the employees themselves. Part financing includes time off during normal working hours for training, or paying for special training equipment.
The last 50 years has led to the massive development of vocational training in both public and private sectors. Training has generally been ‘outer-directed’ by HRM departments, and training needs often stemmed from organisational goals rather than individual needs (Pedler, 1994). Systematic training is a key aspect of human resource development, although much of the training now takes place with cohorts of trainees being trained in the same skills. Problems with this traditional style of management training subsequently led to a re-focusing on ‘learning’ with significant emphasis on learning-styles development.
Where used, the theory involved in training is often subsumed under a broader learning theory. It borrows most of its principles from the education theory, such as Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom 1956; Brabrand and Dahl, 2008) and various cognitive theories (Brown, et al. 1989; Dawson, 2008; Lave, 1988; McClelland, 1995; Sitzmann, et al., 2010). Other theories used include Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth, 1987, 1992; Reigeluth & Stein, 1983), Experiential Learning (Chisholm, et al, 2009) from authors such as Kolb (1984) and Honey and Mumford (1982); Organisational Learning (Argyris & Schon 1978; Bennet & Bennet, 2008); and Social Learning Theory (Akdere, 2005; Bandura, 1973, 1986). Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory has particular relevance to the Ministry of Interior (Fields, 2000; Gagne, 1962; Gagne & Driscoll, 1988; ITLS, 2009; Richey 2000) as it developed from military training and key aspects of the Ministry of Interior are organised along military lines.
Extant learning literature points to the three major dimensions of learning: skills, knowledge and attitude (Nadler & Nadler 1994). Training quality in public administration must consider these dimensions along with the views of several key stakeholders and applicable learning perspectives (Rusaw, 2007). These perspectives will include those of the learner, the training facilitator and the organisation. Together, these will allow an organisation to develop an appropriate training model where both the needs of the organisation and the trainees are considered in the drive for quality.
There are many definitions of the term ‘quality’ though many authors agree that Juran’s definition of “fitness for intended use” is at the heart of most quality systems (Juran, et al. 2010). This is expanded in ISO 9000 which defined ‘quality’ “the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.” When it comes to training, most authors agree that quality can only be properly defined by a system of training evaluation (Piskurich, et al. 2000).
There are two major forms of training evaluation. The first is based on a pragmatic system developed by Donald Kirkpatrick (1959) and is underpinned on empirical information. The second form is theoretically- based (Tamkin, et al. 2002). In the USA especially, systems developed by the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction (IBSTPI) are widely- used (Erickson 1982; Fischer 2009).
After 50 years since its development, the Kirkpatrick (1959) approach has received wide recognition (Birnbrauer 1987; Brown and Gerhardt 2002; Dixon 1996; Lopker and Askeland 2009; Phillips 2007). Some authors such as Hamblin (1974); Tannenbaum and Woods (1992); Kaufman and Keller (1994, Kaufman, et al. 1995); Phillips (1995, 1999) incorporated additional features to the Kirkpatrick model. Authors such as Tannenbaum and Dupuree-Burino (1994); Dixon (1996); Alvarez, et al. (2004); Nichols (2005) and Brinkerhoff (2006) expanded the Kirkpatrick model to include more steps and covered a wider range of stakeholders in training evaluation.
Kirkpartrick’s (1959) model has four levels of evaluation, namely: (1) level 1 – reaction or feedback of participants; (2) level 2 – learning or learning success of participants; (3) level 3 – behaviour or learning transfer/application on the job; and (4) level 4 – results as measured by business success (Gessler, 2009). According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2005), “reactions of participants shall be measured on all programs for two reasons: to let the participants know the value of their reactions and to measure their reactions and obtain suggestions for improvement.” The importance of participant feedback was based on the premise that “if training is going to be effective, it is important that trainees react favourably to it” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). For level 2 – Kirkpatrick (1959, cited in Gessler, 2009) explained that the success of the training programme can be gauged if it is able to accomplish the following: (a) if the participants are able to gain an understanding of the “concepts, principles and techniques being taught”; (b) if the participants are able to “develop and/or improve skills”; and (c) if the participants have changes in their attitudes.
In addition, Kirkpatrick (1959, cited in Gessler, 2009) provided some important guidelines for evaluating learning success. These guidelines, as enumerated by Kirkpatrick (1959) include the following: (1) measuring “knowledge, skill and /or attitudes before and after the training”; (2) using “a paper- and- pencil test for knowledge and attitudes”; (3) administering a “performance test for skills”; (3) generating 100% response rate; and (4) using “a control group that does not receive training to compare it with the experimental group that receives training.”
Level 3 evaluation, as explained by Gessler (2009), involves the successful application of the learnt materials in the workplace. Kirkpatrick (1959) developed the following guidelines for measuring behavioural change due to training: (1) if possible, evaluate behaviour pre and post training; (2) since behaviour modification “and the development of new behavioural patterns take time, so the evaluation should be repeated after an appropriate amount of time”; (3) conduct a survey of one or more stakeholder groups consisting of “participants, superiors, colleagues of participants and others who can evaluate the behaviour of participants”; and (4) undertake “a cost-benefit analysis.”
Level 4 evaluation, as pointed out by Kirkpatrick (1959) involves the evaluation of business results. According to Kirkpatrick (1959, cited in Gessler, 2009), the following question should be addressed during the evaluation: “how have business results changed due to training?” Kirkpatrick (1959) elaborated that “results could be determined by many factors including less turnover, improved quantity of work, improved quality, reduction of waste, reduction in wasted time, increased sales, reduction in costs, increase in profits, and return on investment (ROI).”
However, one of the criticisms of Kirkpatrick’s (1959) model is that it was a largely pragmatist approach with weak theoretical grounding. Developers of other models have attempted to create training evaluation models that are anchored on theoretical grounds and covered areas such as parallel learning, education and knowledge transfer. Holton (1996) was one of Kirkpatrick’s fiercest critics. He believed that any good evaluation model would specify outcomes correctly and account for the effective intervening variables that affect outcomes and indicate causal relationships. He proposed his own model with three primary outcome measures — learning, individual performance, and organisational results — which placed greater emphasis on secondary influences, especially individual learning characteristics that ties training in its evaluation much more closely into the learning theory.
2.1.1 Course Content
A dominant theme that emerged during the literature search related to vocational training is the topic of ‘course content.’ In addition, the importance of ‘systems thinking competencies’ in the context of the learning organisation construct emerged as a new perspective relevant to training. Hence, this section of the literature review will discuss the results of the review pertaining to the following themes: (1) characteristics of effective course content within the context of vocational training; and (2) systems thinking competencies within the context of training in general.
2.1.2 Characteristics of Effective Course Content
Boyce and Pahl (2007) have highlighted the significance of course content in knowledge acquisition by explaining that course content is important in the acquisition of knowledge about a particular subject because knowledge, although intrinsic in nature, is also an implicit aspect of course content. According to Rudestam and Schoenholtz-Read (2002), vocational training courses should be designed in such a way that they match the trainees’ needs. This view was supported by Chan et al. (2006) who argued that since the main goal of vocational training organisations is to afford industry-specific knowledge and skills to enhance the employability of individuals, these training organisations must design and subsequently deliver training courses that cater to the needs of trainees. Hence, Chan et al. (2006) elucidated that course content must be designed in such a way that employees or trainees are able to address industry-specific problems in their workplaces. Thus, course content must be designed by taking into consideration, the employee’s own perspective on the manner by which their work-related needs are to be met.
Bradley (2002) suggested that training courses should be designed in such a way that they can be undertaken flexibly. Similarly, in the report commissioned by Germany’s Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (2012) that delves on the selection and structuring of content of vocational training courses, it was emphasised that since vocational training is intended to adapt to current developments, course content should be “adaptable and flexible to account for new circumstances.” Furthermore, the report stressed the following salient points: (1) the training concept must be integrated into the cultural and social conditions of a country; (2) course content must be flexible and adaptable to the changing conditions of labour markets; (3) course content should allow “insights into general connections so that subjectively meaningful, networked knowledge structures can be developed” (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2012).
These suggestions buttress earlier recommendations made by Godfey (1997) regarding the design of course content for vocational training programmes. According to Godfey (1997), training institutions should be flexible enough to effectively respond to the dynamically- changing labour market situations. To achieve this, Godfey (1997) recommended the following: (1) course designers should be well in touch with the latest technological trends and international product markets that will affect the future economic structure of the country; (2) course designers should be consistently in touch with educators, trainers, employers, trainees, observers and job seekers in order to have a ‘feel’ for the relevant training programmes and labour markets.
In a study conducted by Pohl et al. (2005) which evaluated the design of an e-learning system for vocational training, it was concluded that the trainees found the course interesting and engaging which accounted for the high success rate of the training based on the completion rate. In addition, the trainees viewed the course as simple and usable — since the course content were perceived by trainees as highly relevant to their work practice. Findings of a study conducted by Nkirina (2009) which explored the challenges associated with integrating entrepreneurship education in Tanzania’s vocational training system point to the need for courses to be less theoretical and more practical; as well as to be more interesting to trainees as opposed to being boring. Hence, findings from the studies conducted by Pohl et al. (2005) and by Nkirina (2009) buttress the claims earlier made by Rudestam and Schoenholtz-Read (2002) and by Chan et al. (2006) with regards to the requirement for course content to meet the needs of trainees and to help them address problems specific to their workplaces.
Although most of the aforementioned literature (Godfey, 1997; Bradley, 2002; Rudestam & Schoenholtz-Read, 2002; Chan et al., 2006; Boyce & Pahl, 2007; Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2012) is largely prescriptive in nature and hence lacks critical analysis, their key ideas were nonetheless buttressed by empirical studies (Pohl et al., 2005; Nkirina, 2009). Table 2.1 presents the summary of the results of the literature review on course content.
Table 2.1 Summary of the Results of the Literature Review on Course Content
| Author | Type of Literature | Characteristic of Effective Course Content |
| Godfey (1997) | Peer-reviewed journal article |
|
| Bradley (2002) | Case Study | Offers flexibility |
| Rudestam and Schoenholtz-Read (2002) | Reference book | Matches the needs of trainees |
| Chan et al. (2006) | Peer-reviewed journal article |
|
| Pohl et al. (2005) | Peer-reviewed journal article (Empirical research) |
|
| Boyce and Pahl (2007) | Peer-reviewed journal article | Facilitates knowledge acquisition about a particular subject |
| Nkirina (2009) | Peer-reviewed journal article |
|
| Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, (2012) | Commissioned Report |
|
Source: Created by the Researcher
2.2 Cultural Differences
2.2.1 Theoretical Frameworks Relevant to ‘Cultural Differences’
There is a significant body of extant literature that delves on the different frameworks that are focused on cultural differences. These frameworks include the following: (1) cross-cultural dimension framework by Hofstede (1980; 2001); (2) seven dimensions of culture by Schwartz (1992); (3) cultural syndromes by Triandis (1994); and (4) dimensions of culture by Trompenaars (1993).
2.2.1.1 Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework
Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework is anchored on the assumption that the actions of people from all over the world are guided by ethical norms, attitudes, customs, and morals. In his seminal work on cultural differences, Hofstede (1980) elucidated that people possess ‘mental programs’ that contain a dimension of national culture that are cultivated and reinforced through experience. Hofstede’s (1980) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework was based on a primary research involving a large sample of employees from 40 countries employed by IBM. Hofstede’s (1980; 2001) framework consists of five cultural dimensions, namely: (1) Power Distance Index (PDI) which pertains to the extent of power inequality amongst organisational members; (2) Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI), which is the extent to which organisational members feel threatened by ambiguous or uncertain situations; (3) Individualism (IDV) vs. Collectivism, which pertains to the extent by which individuals are integrated into groups, with individualism being defined as “a loosely knit social framework in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and of their immediate families only”; and collectivism being “characterised by a tight social framework in which people distinguish between ingroups and outgroups, they expect their in-group to look after them, and in exchange for that they feel they owe absolute loyalty to it” (1980); (4) Masculinity (MAS)–Femininity (FEM) which pertains to “the extent to which the dominant values in society” are either masculine which is characterised by “assertiveness, the acquisition of money and things, and notcaring for others, the quality of life, or people” (1980); or feminine, which is characterised by those attributes that are opposite of masculine traits; and (5) Confucian dynamism (or long-term vs short-term orientation) which pertains to the way society perceives the dimension of time horizon, whereby long-term oriented societies are deemed likely to place a premium on the future time horizon and place importance on pragmatic values; while short-term oriented societies, on the other hand, are deemed likely to place importance on values relevant to the past and the present such as steadiness and respect for tradition (2000).
A significant body of literature has cited Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework. It has been recognised for its “clarity, parsimony, and resonance with managers” (Kirkman, Lowe & Gibson, 2006). Even Trompenaars (1993) claimed that Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework is responsible “for opening management’s eyes to the importance of the cross-cultural management subject.” Indeed, Hofstede’s framework has been used in wide-ranging contexts since it was able to serve as the foundation for cross-cultural research related to a diverse range of disciplines (Blodgett, Bakir & Rose, 2008).
However, Hofstede’s framework has also received a lot of criticisms. For instance, Blodgett et al. (2001) argued that Hofstede’s framework was largely based on a national level of analysis and is thus used solely for comparing systematic differences in cultures across nations. In a later work, Blodgett, Bakir & Rose (2008) found that Hofstede’s framework lacks construct validity when used at an individual level of analysis. In addition, Blodgett, Bakir & Rose (2008) maintained that “overall, a majority of the items were lacking in face validity, the reliabilities of the four dimensions were low, and the factor analyses did not result in a coherent structure.” Indeed, Hofstede (1996) himself admitted that the Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework is not intended to be used at an individual level of analysis, citing the difference between the analysis within a particular culture and between different national cultures.
2.2.1.2 Schwartz’ (1992) Seven Dimensions of Culture
Schwartz (1992) explored the inner layer of the culture onion which he referred to as ‘value’ by administering a survey to teachers and students in more than 40 countries and asking them to rate the importance of 56 values that serve as a guiding principle in their lives and are considered “universal human value types” (Ng, Lee & Sautar, 2007). Schwartz (1992) analysed the survey results by categorizing them into two levels — the individual and the cultural level. This categorization in turn lead to the generation of two individual level dimensions (i.e. conversation to openness to change, and self-transcendence to self-enhancement) and three cultural-level dimensions (i.e. embededness vs. autonomy, hierarchy vs. egalitarianism, and mastery vs. harmony). The following are the seven cultural level value types as proposed by Schwartz (1992): (1) conservatism, which occurs when society places a premium on close-knit relations, maintenance of status quo and avoidance of actions that tend to disrupt traditional order; (2) intellectual autonomy, which pertains to the recognition of individuals as autonomous entities who possess the prerogative to pursue their intellectual interests; (3) affective autonomy, which pertains to the recognition of individuals as autonomous entities who possess the prerogative to pursue their hedonistic interests and desires; (4) hierarchy, which pertains to the importance that a society places on the legitimacy of hierarchical roles and the allocation of resources; (5) mastery, which pertains to the manner by which society places importance on the active mastery of the social environment and individuals rights; (6) egalitarian commitment, which pertains to the emphasis placed by society on the supremacy of selfless interests; and (7) harmony, which pertains to the emphasis placed by society on harmony with nature.
Several researchers have compared Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework with Schwartz’ (1992) Seven Dimensions of Culture in terms of the scope of the cultural dimensions of each respective framework. Steenkamp (2001) and Kagitcibasi (1997) argued that Schwartz’ values capture more cultural aspects than the dimensions developed by Hofstede. In addition, Brett and Okumura (1998) stressed that Schwartz’s framework is superior to Hofstede’s because “[…]it is based on a conceptualization of values; it was developed with systematic sampling, measurement and analysis techniques; and […] its normative data are recent, collected in the late 1980s and early 1990s.” These earlier observations were later supported by Ng, Lee and Soutar (2007) who emphasised that Schwartz’ values contribute more and hence, play a more important role in trade-related studies compared to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. However, a key criticism of Schwartz’ (1992) Seven Dimensions of Culture is that that the cultural values were based purely on assumptions (Peng, Nisbett & Wong, 1997). Peng, Nisbett and Wong (1997) argued that validity for common methods of cross-cultural comparisons of values cannot be assumed but must be proved.
2.2.1.3 Triandis’ (1994, 1995) Cultural Syndromes
Triandis (1994, 1995), using secondary research, conceptualized the Cultural Syndromes Framework based on the cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism which in turn, is comprised of various attitudinal and behavioural dimensions that define self- other relations. Triandis (1994, 1995) analysed the cultural dimension of individualism–collectivism as identified by G. Hofstede (1980), using items developed empirically in 9 different cultures. The individualism-collectivism construct describes “the degree where people feel that care should be taken of or to care of themselves, their organizations and families” (Chung et al., 2011). According to Tafarodi and Walters (1999), Triandis (1994, 1995) hypothesised that “collectivism is high in cultures that are simple and tight.” Chung et al. (2011) explained that when gathered together in groups, collectivists tend to orient themselves towards group interests and consider themselves as “members of extended organizations or family.” Carpenter’s (2000) findings buttressed this hypothesis by affording empirical evidence that highlights the correlation of collectivism and tightness. Mills and Clark (1982) describe collectivists as behaving in a communal manner, having a predilection to prioritise the achievement of common goals and to shape their behaviour in accordance with their in-groups norms.
Triandis and Suh (2002) noted the presence many collectivist cultures and explained that these collectivist cultures that can be grouped into two major categories, namely: (1) vertical collectivist culture; and (2) horizontal collectivist culture. According to Triandis and Suh (2002), in vertical collectivist cultures such as India, the following characteristics are predominant: traditionalism, placing emphasis on in-group cohesion, high respect for in-group norms as well as for the directives of authorities. Such classification was later supported by Altemeyer (1996) and by Bond and Smith (1996). Altemeyer (1996) described vertical collectivist cultures as being closely associated with the following attributes: right wing authoritarianism, an inclination to be submissive to authority and to endorse conventionalism. Bond and Smith (1996) described vertical collectivist cultures to be traditionalists with a high predilection to follow the norms set by the group. On the other hand, horizontal collectivist cultures such as Israel are characterised by emphasize empathy, sociability, and cooperation (Triandis & Suh, 2002).
Triandis et al. (1998; cited in Rogers & Spitzmueller, 2009) maintained that individualism, which is the opposite of collectivism, is defined as “the subordination of a group’s goals to the individual’s goals.” Triandis and Suh (2002) elucidated that the cognitive structure of individualists is primarily comprised by an independent self-construal wherein an individual is inclined to regard oneself to be fixed and the environment to be malleable or changing. Triandis and Suh (2002) further categorized individualist cultures into vertical individualist cultures and horizontal individualist cultures and claimed that in vertical individualist cultures such as the US corporate world, competitiveness is high, and one must be “the best” in order to effectively climb the corporate ladder. On the other hand, Triandis and Suh (2002) argued that in horizontal individualist cultures such as Australia and Sweden, hierarchical differentiation is not accentuated, but rather, the emphasis is placed on self-reliance, uniqueness and on independence from others.
Greenfield (1999) explained that the individualism-collectivism construct corresponds to the deep structure of cultural differences. Many researchers have studied the individualism-collectivism construct at the cultural level of analysis, especially in the field of cultural psychology (Bond & Smith, 1996). For instance, Norenzayan, Choi & Nisbett (1999) found that East Asians who were making dispositional attributions consider traits as changeable, flexible or malleable, whereas Western individualist participants consider them as fixed or unchangeable. Such findings were buttressed by Krull et al. (1999; cited in Triandis & Suh, 2002) who suggested that cultural differences between East Asians and Westerners occur because “samples from East Asia make situational attributions much more frequently and to a greater extent than samples from the West.”
However, a major limitation of Triandis’ (1994, 1995) Cultural Syndromes, as pointed out by Oyserman and Lee (2008), is that despite the observed consistent patterns of cultural differences across nations that are attributed to the individualism-collectivism construct, “cross-national comparisons cannot of themselves provide conclusive support of this causal role, and for this reason the cross-national evidence can be considered spotty.” Thus, the causal role of the individualism-collectivism construct in cross-cultural comparisons need to be supported by data and should not be based on general assumptions alone (Oyserman & Lee, 2008).
2.2.1.4 Trompenaars’ (1994) Dimensions of Culture
To gain a deeper understanding of the concept of cultural diversity within the business context, Dutch management consultant Fons Trompenaars (1993) developed a framework or model of seven fundamental dimensions of national culture which include the following: (1) universalism versus particularism, (2) individualism versus collectivism, (3) neutral versus emotional, (4) specific versus diffuse, (5) achievement versus ascription, (6) orientation in time, and (7) attitudes towards the environment. Hofstede (1996) explained that while the first five dimensions are useful in describing relationships with other people, the remaining two dimensions are associated with time and the external environment. This framework was developed from a questionnaire based largely upon the identification of cultural and “personal pattern variables or value dilemmas” identified by Parsons and Shils (1951; cited in Smith & Dugan, 1996).
In the first dimension of universalism versus particularism, Trompenaars (1996) explicated that universalist cultures tend to believe that moral reference emanates from general rules and obligations, thus, they are predisposed to follow rules and to attempt to change others’ attitudes so that they can conform to the norms. Particularist cultures, on the other hand, place a premium on particular circumstances rather than on rules. Hence, Trompenaars claimed “bonds of particular relationships (family, friends) are stronger than any abstract rule and the response may change according to circumstances and the people involved.”
In the second dimension, individualism versus collectivism, individualist cultures, are more concerned about individuals’ rights and hence, place lesser importance on the achievement of collective goals than on the achievement of their own individual goals. In contrast, individualist cultures are more concerned about the rights of the society as a whole, than the rights of individuals. Collectivist cultures view the achievement of collective goals more important than the achievement of the goals of individuals.
In the third dimension, neutral versus emotional, He explicated that neutral cultures tend to seek an indirect response wherein different paths to one’s approval is provided. The indirect paths give us emotional support contingent upon the success of an effort of intellect.” On the other hand, emotional cultures tend to provide a direct emotional response which “allows our feelings about a factual proposition to show through, thereby joining feelings with thoughts in a different way.”
In the fourth dimension, specific versus diffuse, Trompenaars explained that people have different ways of expressing their emotions. Generally, however, these can be categorized into specific or diffuse. Accordingly “in specific-oriented cultures a manager segregates out the task relationship she or he has with subordinates and isolates this from other dealings.” In contrast, in diffuse- oriented cultures, the task relationship with subordinates permeates all other life space and different levels of personality at the same time. Diffuse strategies highlight “the importance of a holistic relationship with the organization and its environment” In contrast, in specific-oriented cultures, private and work are sharply delineated
In the fifth dimension, achievement versus ascription, Trompenaars elucidated that achievement-oriented cultures “justify organisational hierarchies by explaining that senior persons have achieved more for the organisation; their authority, justified by skill and knowledge, benefits the organization.”
In the sixth dimension, orientation in time, Trompenaars maintained that time can either be conceived as a sequence or as synchronization. He claimed that cultures who consider time as a sequence consider events to occur sequentially in a particular time frame and often as a result of rational or conscious actions. On the other hand, cultures who consider time a synchronization of events also consider strategies in the short-term, as a result of emerging conditions.
Finally, the seventh dimension, attitudes towards the environment is primarily concerned with the assignment of meaning to the natural environment. Trompenaar elucidated that people who have an organic view of nature tend to assume that man is subjugated to nature and thus, are more inclined to “orient their actions towards others.” In contrast, people who possess a mechanistic view of nature, “in addition to the belief that man can dominate nature, usually take themselves as the point of departure for determining the right action”
Bickerstaffe (2002) highlighted the utility of Trompenaar’s Dimensions of Culture by pointing out that the framework has been deemed useful in the areas of organisational management and change management, specially within the context of corporate acquisitions, mergers and alliances — all of which are susceptible to “dilemmas in relationships with people, dilemmas in relationship to time, and dilemmas in relationships between people and the natural environment.” Bickerstaffe maintained that these dilemmas can be fairly predictable and that the seven fundamental dimensions of national culture can be used to characterize these dilemmas and subsequently reconcile them.
However, the Dimensions of Culture framework did not take into account the impact of individual characteristics on behaviour as the level of analysis is largely on a national or country level of analysis. In addition, in a validation study conducted by Hofstede (1996), wherein Trompenaars’ data were statistically treated using correlation and factor analysis at the country level, Hofstede (1996) criticized Trompenaars’ methodological approach, claiming that only two dimensions could be clearly confirmed statistically — the Individualism / Achievement and Universalism / Diffuse dimensions. Hofstede further elaborated that Trompenaars’ work lacked content validity. Furthermore, Hofstede argued that Trompenaars’ work failed to address the following concerns that are deemed crucial to cultural conflicts, namely: “power struggle, corruption, exploitation, aggression, anxiety, and differing concepts of masculinity and femininity.”
In response to Hofstede’s criticisms, Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1997 ) argued that Hofstede: (1) misapprehended their database; (2) failed to realize that weighted combinations were used in the study, as opposed to individual questions; (3) preferred the use of parametric scaling “where nonparametric is more appropriate”; and (4) was after the ‘perfect model;’ instead of the ‘models-to-learn-with.’
Table 2.2 below presents the summary of the results of the literature review relevant to the models of cultural differences.
Table 2.2 Summary of the Results of the Literature Review Related to the Models of Cultural Differences
| Author | Type of Research Conducted | Concept of Cultural Differences | Framework or Model | Benefits | Criticisms |
| Hofstede (1980, 2001) | Primary research involving a large sample of employees from 40 countries employed by IBM | Cultural differences are anchored on national culture that are cultivated and reinforced through experience. | Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework consisting of five cultural dimensions (power distance index, uncertainty avoidance index, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity –femininity, Confucian dynamism | Serves as the foundation for cross-cultural research related to a diverse range of disciplines, but has been deemed more valuable to management | Largely based on a national level of analysis. Lacks construct validity when used at an individual level of analysis |
| Schwartz (1992) | A survey of teachers and students in more than 40 countries (primary research) | Cultural differences are based on universal human value types | Seven Dimensions of Culture (conservatism, intellectual autonomy, affective autonomy, hierarchy, mastery, egalitarian commitment, harmony) | Captures more cultural aspects than the dimensions developed by Hofstede (Kagitcibasi, 1997).
Plays a more important role in trade-related studies compared to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (Ng, Lee & Soutar, 2007). |
Cultural values were based purely on assumptions (Peng, Nisbett & Wong, 1997) |
| Triandis’ (1994, 1995) | Secondary research | Cross-cultural differences are based on the Individualism vs. Collectivism construct | Cultural Syndromes (Individualism vs. Collectivism) | Consistent patterns of cultural differences across nations that are attributed to the individualism-collectivism construct (Oyserman & Lee, 2008). | Used predominantly in cultural psychology.
Based on general assumptions on cross-national evidence (Oyserman & Lee, 2008). |
| Trompenaars (1994) | Secondary research | Cross-cultural differences are based on seven fundamental dimensions of national culture | Seven fundamental dimensions of national culture (1) universalism versus particularism, (2) individualism versus collectivism, (3) neutral versus emotional, (4) specific versus diffuse, (5) achievement versus ascription, (6) orientation in time, and (7) attitudes towards the environment | Deemed useful in the areas of organizational management and change management, particularly within the context of corporate acquisitions, mergers and alliances | Did not take into account the impact of individual characteristics on behaviour as the level of analysis is largely on a national or country level of analysis.
Only two dimensions could be clearly confirmed statistically — the Individualism / Achievement and Universalism / Diffuse dimensions (Hofstede, 1996). It lacks content validity (Hofstede, 1996) |
Source: Created by the Researcher
As shown in Table 2.2, these frameworks or models have varying degrees of suitability for different contexts. For instance, Hoftede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework and Trompenaars’ (1994) Seven Fundamental Dimensions of National Culture are mostly used in management studies. However, Trompenaars’ (1994) Seven Fundamental Dimensions of National Culture is more particularly used in organizational management and change management. On the other hand, Schwartz’ (1992) Seven Dimensions of Culture, is mostly used in trade-related studies; while Triandis’ (1994, 1995) Cultural Syndromes figures prominently in psychology-related studies. Indeed, according to Schwatz’ (1994) theory, cultural dimensions are likely to be organized in coherent or consistent manner. The cultural distance index, for instance, is an example of such measures that has been used in a diverse range of cross-cultural studies (Hakanson & Ambos, 2010).
2.2.2 Studies That Focus on Cultural Differences Relevant to Learning & Training
As pointed out by Mayen (2011), knowledge acquisition is a major characteristic of vocational training. Hence, a review of literature that is related to knowledge acquisition or learning, as well as to training itself is required. This subsection presents the results of the review of studies that explore the impacts of cultural differences on: (1) group activities (Cox, Lobel & McLeod, 1991); (2) deductive reasoning (Unsworth & Medin (2005); (3) learning and achievement motivation (McClelland, 1961; Niles, 1995; Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009); and knowledge transfer (Li et al., 2014).
- Impacts of Cultural Differences on Group Activities
Cox, Lobel and McLeod (1991) tested the hypothesis that differences in cultural norms would result in different behaviours while undertaking a group task. Cox, Lobel and McLeod (1991) examined the impacts of ethnic group differences between Asians, Blacks, Hispanics and Anglos in assessing competitive and cooperative behaviours on a group activity. The research tool that was used was the Prisoner’s Dilemma Task wherein study participants were given the option to either cooperate or compete with one another. Results of the study indicate that groups consisting of participants with collectivist cultural traditions are more likely to display greater cooperative behaviour compared to those displaying individualistic cultural traditions, who are in turn more likely to be more competitive. Thus, the findings of this study buttress the frameworks that are related to the cultural dimension of individualism versus collectivism proposed by Hofstede (1980, 2001); Triandis (1994); and Trompenaars, (1994). A key limitation of this study, however, is that the results only addressed one cultural difference and one behavioural dimension of a collectivist orientation. In addition, despite the importance given to situational ethnicity and biculturalism, Cox, Lobel and McLeod (1991) did not investigate these factors.
- Impacts of Cultural Differences in Deductive Reasoning
Unsworth and Medin (2005) investigated if indeed cultural differences are present in the use of intuitive or deductive as opposed to formal or inductive reasoning. Unsworth and Medin (2005) validated the findings of the study conducted by Norenzayan et al. (2002), wherein results of their experiments confirmed that cultural differences operate in deductive reasoning. According to Norenzayan et al. (2002), compared to European Americans, Koreans who participated in the study were found to be more conservative and were therefore less likely to claim that a particular argument is valid since they tend to have a belief bias. On the other hand, European Americans were found to be more likely to decontextualize an argument from its logical structure and are hence better than Koreans in judging the logical validity of arguments. However, Unsworth and Medin (2005) analysed the average hit and correct rejection rates in each of the experiments conducted by Norenzayan et al. (2002), and found contrasting evidence, claiming that European Americans were no better than Koreans at “determining the validity of concrete deductive arguments with conclusions varying in believability.” Nonetheless, Unsworth and Medin (2005, p.528) claimed that it is possible that East Asians and European Americans use “different cognitive strategies in other cognitive tasks.”
- Cultural Differences in Learning and Achievement Motivation
Cultural differences in learning motivation were explored by various scholars in the past. For instance, in McClelland’s (1961) seminal work that focused on the examination of the variations in achievement patterns amongst different cultures, particularly between Far Eastern and Western cultures, it has been argued that motivations for learning and achievement are strongly associated with economic development and the rise and fall of civilisations. McClelland (1961) conducted a qualitative study that was aimed at analysing the achievement motive, as well entrepreneurial characteristics and behaviour and sources of achievement, both past and present, of what he considered as highly achieving societies. McClelland (1961) elucidated that cross-cultural differences in the levels for the need for achievement were attributable to differences in personality, which in turn, was attributed to child-rearing practices and to eco-cultural forces that are likely to generate socialization practices and instil varying levels of need for achievement.
Niles (1995) conducted a study that examined and compared the motivation patterns and learning strategies of Asian and Australian students enrolled at an Australian university. Niles (1995) administered a survey to Australian and overseas students studying at the Norther Territory University in the faculties of Arts, Education, Business, and Science and used the Study Process Questionnaire developed by Briggs (1987; cited in Niles, 1995). Findings of the study suggest the following: (1) there are both similarities and differences when it comes to motivation patterns and learning strategies; (2) while the Australian students were largely motivated by competition, the Asian students, on the other hand, were found to be more motivated by the need for social approval; and (3) the Asian students were not rote learners as claimed in prior literature. Thus, findings of the study highlight the strong influence of cultural differences on achievement motivation and learning strategies. In addition, findings of the study contradicted the earlier proposition of McClelland (1961) which highlighted that economic development was considered to be the key determinant of achievement motivation.
Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009) conducted a study that examined the impact of goal orientation and individualism-collectivism construct on the learning processes and performance outcomes of a technical training programme. Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009) collected data from 92 employees (all engineers) of a multinational corporation belonging to the oil and energy industry who were then enrolled at a technical training program. The international diversity of the sample was comprised by Americans (33%), Nigerians (25%), Canadians (9%) and other nationalities such as Russians, Qataris, Columbians, Indians, Papua New Guineans and Angolans (30%). Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009) used a subset of items from Hofstede’s (1980) measure of individualism and collectivism. For the goal orientation variable, items for learning goal orientation and performance goal orientation from the measure developed by VandeWalle et al. (2001; cited in Rogers & Spitzmueller 2009, p. 191) were used. For the ‘learning variable’, differences between post-test and pre-test were computed. These tests were designed by the company and were subsequently used to ascertain whether participants were able to benefit from the training programme or otherwise. These tests were focused on the technical skills and knowledge relevant to the course content. For the ‘motivation to learn’ variable, a scale developed by Noe and Schmitt (1986, cited in Rogers & Spitzmueller 2009, p. 191) was used to determine whether or not the participants were motivated to acquire the relevant skills and knowledge. Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009) found that the individualism-collectivism construct could potentially serve as a key moderator of the influence of goal orientation on learning and motivation during training. Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009) highlighted that the individualism-collectivism construct bear some important implications for the training and development programmes of organisations. A key implication of the individualism-collectivism construct within the context of training and development programs is that important individual differences have the capacity or the potential to negatively affect the effectiveness of training for employees who are from different cultural backgrounds. Another important implication, according to Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009), is that since goal orientation is induced by situational influences, simple manipulation of task instructions could increase performance and the likelihood of achieving learning goals. Thus, Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009) suggested that for organisations to create a climate for optimal training performance, they should consider the individualism-collectivism construct in shaping instructions and overviews within training.
- Knowledge Transfer
Li et al. (2014) conducted a meta-analysis of the influencing factors on knowledge transfer with a particular emphasis on cultural factors. Li et al. (2014) analysed a total of 69 peer-reviewed articles that focus on knowledge transfer and Hofstede’s (1980) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework. The articles were divided into two groups based on the following cultural characteristics proposed by Hofstede (1980): (1) individualism, low power distance; and (2) collectivism, high power distance. Findings of the study indicate that the following factors affect the knowledge transfer process: “transfer willingness, trust, tie strength, credibility of the source, network centricity, and network density” (Li et al., 2014, p. 292). Furthermore, it was found that “the meta-analytic comparison of the influencing factors across two cultural contexts indicate that significant differences occur due to knowledge ambiguity, transfer capacity, transfer willingness and network centricity (Li et al., 2014, p. 292). Li et al. (2014, p.284) maintained that “in knowledge transfer activities, first, the knowledge seeker evaluates and subjectively locates the potential knowledge source, and the process of doing so is affected by power.” However, a key limitation of the study is that it did not address more detailed dimensions of knowledge transfer such as efficiency and effectiveness as the scope of the analysis was limited to the aforementioned two cultural dimensions. Findings of the study nonetheless support the findings of previous studies.
Table 2.3 summarises the findings from the review of literature related to studies dealing with cultural differences on learning.
Table 2.3 Summary of Literature Review Results Relevant to Studies that Delve on Cultural Differences
| Author | Type of Research Conducted | Main Thrust of Study | Findings |
| Cox, Lobel and McLeod (1991) | Primary research | Evaluated the impacts of cultural differences on group activities | Groups consisting of participants with collectivist cultural traditions are more likely to display greater cooperative behaviour compared to those displaying individualistic cultural traditions, who are in turn more likely to be more competitive |
| Unsworth and Medin (2005) | Secondary research | Validated the findings of the study conducted by Norenzayan et al. (2002) | Unsworth and Medin (2005) found contrasting evidence, claiming that European Americans were no better than Koreans at “determining the validity of concrete deductive arguments with conclusions varying in believability.” |
| McClelland (1961) | Secondary research | Examination of the variations in achievement patterns amongst different cultures, particularly between Far Eastern and Western cultures | Cross-cultural differences in the levels for the need for achievement were attributable to differences in personality, which in turn, was attributed to child-rearing practices and to eco-cultural forces that are likely to generate socialization practices and instil varying levels of need for achievement |
| Niles (1995) | Primary research | Compared the motivation patterns and learning strategies of Asian and Australian students enrolled at an Australian university | (1) There are both similarities and differences when it comes to motivation patterns and learning strategies; (2) While the Australian students were largely motivated by competition, the Asian students, on the other hand, were found to be more motivated by the need for social approval; and (3) The Asian students were not rote learners as claimed in prior literature |
| Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009) | Primary research | Examined the impact of goal orientation and individualism-collectivism construct on the learning processes and performance outcomes of a technical training programme | The individualism-collectivism construct can potentially serve as a key moderator of the influence of goal orientation on learning and motivation during training |
| Li et al. (2014) | Secondary research | Conducted a meta-analysis of the influencing factors on knowledge transfer with a particular emphasis on cultural factors | The following factors affect the knowledge transfer process:
“transfer willingness, trust, tie strength, credibility of the source, network centricity, and network density” (Li et al., 2014, p. 292). “In knowledge transfer activities, first, the knowledge seeker evaluates and subjectively locates the potential knowledge source, and the process of doing so is affected by power” (Li et al., 2014, p. 284) |
Source: Created by the Researcher
2.3 The SSM Concept
If one accepts that training exists as a ‘system’ in Qatar, it is important to methodically evaluate it within a proper framework such as the Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) (Checkland and Scholes 1990). This will compel the student too look at the bigger picture within which the ‘system’ must develop (and often, is forced to develop). This bigger picture comprises the geo-political/socio-economic and above all, cultural/multi-cultural dimensions within which the ‘system’ is called upon to operate and/or develop. This bigger picture is what determines the development of the ‘system’ and as such, needs to be at the forefront of any propositions for the future development of this ‘system’. This ‘bigger picture’ moreover, is often missing from much of the research, studies, reports, etc., as well as the discourses that define the ‘system’. To adopt an systems approach will allow a more holistic view and better grounded view of the ‘system’ (Jackson 2003).
As a methodology, Hindle (2011) argued that SSM is inherently multipurpose and flexible in nature. As such, it has been interpreted by practitioners in a diverse number of ways (Ledington & Donaldson, 1997; Checkland, 2000; Jackson, 2000; Munro & Mingers, 2002; Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres, 2005; Hindle, 2011). In the same vein, results of the literature review relevant to the SSM concept highlighted the existence of different working definitions of the term ‘soft systems methodology’. Thus, finding a standard definition from the reviewed literature proved to be difficult. However, a key finding that emerged from the review is that working definitions were anchored primarily on the functional dimension of SSM.
For instance, most practitioners considered SSM as a learning process. Specifically, Tsoi (2004), considered SSM as “a learning process which aims at improvement and tries to solve a complex and problematical human situation.” This perspective was supported by Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005) who described SSM as “a learning process which takes the form of an enquiry process in a situation that people are concerned.” Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005) further explained that such process results in action “in a never ending learning cycle.”
However, for Stowell (2009) and Hindle (2011), SSM is not a learning process, but rather an experiential learning activity. According to Stowell (2009, p. 883), SSM focuses on “seeking understanding through experience and learning as this kind of approach to investigation makes the process of learning itself prime rather than seeking a solution.” In the same vein, Hindle (2011) emphasised that SSM is particularly useful in “tackling complex situations through the experiential learning of a group of participants.” This experiential learning perspective places emphasis on the involvement or participation of stakeholders during the conduct of the SSM and is thus more applicable to learning within social contexts such as group learning. This is also applicable in action research and in project management. In contrast, the learning process perspective is limited to the involvement of the researcher in trying to solve a problematical human situation.
Other practitioners see SSM as a tool used in determining the problem and subsequently arriving at a solution. This view of SSM as a tool has led to the formulation of several connotative meanings associated with the use of SSM as a tool, such as: (1) ‘a way of analyzing’ (Kayrooz & Trevitt, 2005); (2) ‘a systematic framework’ (Checkland & Poulter, 2006); (3) ‘a problem-solving tool’ (Leitch & Warren, 2008); (4) ‘a process for managing’ (Hardman and Paucar-Caceres, 2011); and (5) ‘a problem-structuring method’ (Montevechi & Friend , 2012). Kayrooz & Trevitt (2005) defined SSM as “a way of analysing the context of the research study. It comprises a range of interactions involving the context, the ideal envisaged and the interaction between the context and the ideal.” Checkland and Poulter (2006) considered SSM as a systematic framework that is used to deal with problematical social situations. Leitch and Warren (2008) asserted that SSM is “often not referred to as a methodology but a problem solving tool, which makes it suitable for a variety of situations.” According to Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011), SSM pertains to the application of systems principles to “structured thinking about things that happen in the world.” They explicated that in a broader sense, SSM is a process for managing and for arriving at organised action. For Montevechi and Friend (2012), SSM is fundamentally, a problem-structuring method that provides a structured series of phases that are aimed at guiding the “qualitative process involved in complex problem definition.” The diversity of these connotations attests to the earlier claims of Hindle (2011) about the disparate views and interpretations of practitioners regarding SSM.
Table 2.4 below presents the literature review matrix relevant to the various working definitions and connotations of SSM found in extant literature.
Table 2.4 Literature Review Matrix of the Definitions and Connotations of SSM
| Main Themes Found in Working Definitions of SSM | Authors | ||||
| SSM as a learning process | Tsoi (2004, p. 1027 ) | Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005, p. 308) | |||
| SSM is “a learning process which aims at improvement and tries to solve a complex and problematical human situation.” | SSM is “a learning process which takes the form of an enquiry process in a situation that people are concerned.” | ||||
| SSM as an experiential learning activity | Stowell (2009, p. 883) | Hindle (2011) | |||
| SSM focuses on “seeking understanding through experience and learning as this kind of approach to investigation makes the process of learning itself prime rather than seeking a solution.” | SSM is particularly useful in “tackling complex situations through the experiential learning of a group of participants.” | ||||
| Connotative meanings of SSM | Kayrooz & Trevitt (2005, p. 341) | Leitch and Warren (2008) | Checkland and Poulter (2006) | Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) | Montevechi and Friend (2012) |
| “A way of analysing the context of the research study.” | A problem-solving tool rather than a methodology | A systematic framework that is used to deal with problematical social situations | A process for managing and for arriving at organised action | A problem-structuring method that provides a structured series of phases | |
Source: Made by the Researcher
The present study adopts the definition formulated by Tsoi (2004) and by Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005) who defined SSM as a learning process “which aims at improvement and tries to solve a complex and problematical human situation” (Tsoi, 2004); and which “takes the form of an enquiry process in a situation that people are concerned” (Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres, 2005). Thus, taken together, the present study alludes to SSM as a learning process that follows an enquiry approach aimed at improving and addressing a problematical social situation. The adoption of the aforementioned definition of SSM is underpinned on the focus of the study, which is the training system in IAD, and which places the emphasis on the training courses offered rather than on the organisational context of IAD. As such, this consideration excludes the experiential learning dimension of stakeholders since the design of the improved versions of the courses will be undertaken by this researcher, based on the results of data analysis.
Furthermore, in terms of the connotative meaning, the present study adopts the connotation put forward by Kayrooz & Trevitt (2005) which considers SSM as “a way of analysing the context of the research study. It comprises a range of interactions involving the context, the ideal envisaged and the interaction between the context and the ideal.” Such connotation is deemed well- suited for the present study which intends to analyse the context of the study (training system of IAD), the ideal envisaged (improved versions of training courses), and the interaction between the context and the ideal (evaluation of the real-world view and the conceptual model of the training system of IAD).
2.3.1 Purpose of SSM
A dominant theme that emerged from the literature review centres on the purpose of SSM. Birgitta (2002) claimed that SSM is aimed at dealing with real-world problems of management. As such, several authors have documented its utility for learning and systems design (Checkland & Scholes, 1990; Reid et al., 1999; Hindle, 2011; Hardman and Paucar-Caceres; 2011). In addition, Steinfort (2010) emphasised that SSM is helpful for understanding the determinants of project management.
A significant body of research has also highlighted the evaluatory nature of SSM that enables it to improve problematical situations by assessing the current situation and subsequently bringing about changes. For instance, Kayrooz & Trevitt (2005) asserted that the major purpose of SSM is to distinguish the extant system as well as its interrelated conditions so that the hindrances and opportunities for change can be identified and the potential for improvement, systematically examined.
Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005) claimed that SSM effectively separates the ‘real- world’ from the ‘systems thinking world’, which ensures that ‘systems’, considered as abstract concepts, are not seen in the ‘real-world’. This consideration eventually facilitates the achievement of improvements to the situations under scrutiny. This view of SSM was later buttressed by Kotiadis and Robinson (2008) who referred to it as a problem structuring method; and by Baskerville, Pries-Heje and Venable (2009) who argued that SSM effectively “distinguishes thinking in the real world from thinking in an abstract, systems world.” Similarly, Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) supported this inherently evaluatory nature of SSM and claimed that SSM differentiates conceptual models of “potentially realizable systems with each other and the real world, and derives systematically desirable and culturally- feasible improvements.”
From a pragmatic viewpoint, Checkland (1999; cited in Somerville & Howard, 2008) asserted that the purpose of SSM is to provide “management tools for considering chaos and advances forward thinking agreements for action, opening up novel and elegant proposals for change.” Watson (2012, p. 442) explained that the goal of SSM is to “bring about changes” that are aimed at improving problematical situations. Such changes, according to Watson (2012), can take the form of actions such as structural or process changes, or the form of attitudinal changes such as changes in outlook or perspective. In essence therefore, SSM, according to Montevechi and Friend (2012), aims to “transparently structure the understanding process undertaken by researchers.” Table 2.2 presents the summary of the results of the literature review relevant to the purpose of SSM. As shown in Table 2.2, SSM has many purposes or goals which can be categorized into the following: (1) SSM is used for dealing with real-world problems of management, with learning and systems design, and with project management; (2) SSM is used in the evaluation of extant systems; and (3) SSM is used in bringing about changes and improvements to the problematical situation. Table 2.5 shows the findings from the review of literature related to the purpose of SSM.
Table 2.5 Literature Review Matrix Relevant to the Purpose of SSM
| Dominant Themes Relevant to the Purpose of SSM | Authors | ||
| Utility of SSM | Birgitta (2002) | Checkland & Scholes (1990), Reid et al. (1999), Hindle (2011), Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) | Steinfort (2010) |
| Real-world problems of management | Learning and systems design | Project Management | |
| Goal of evaluating extant systems | Kayrooz & Trevitt (2005) | Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005), Baskerville, Pries-Heje and Venable (2009) | Kotiadis and Robinson (2008), Montevechi and Friend (2012) |
| SSM distinguishes current systems | SSM separates ‘real-world’ from systems thinking world | SSM structures the problem | |
| Goal of bringing about changes and improvements | Checkland (1999; cited in Somerville & Howard, 2008) | Watson (2012) | |
| SSM advances forward thinking agreements for action | SSM’s goal is to change and improve problematical situations. | ||
Source: Made by the Researcher
2.3.2 The SSM Paradigm
Numerous scholars have asserted that SSM follows an interpretive paradigm (Checkland, 1981, 1985, 1989, 2000; Checkland & Scholes, 1990; Patton, 1990; Brocklesby, 1995; Feather and Sturges, 2003; Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres, 2005; Checkland & Poulter, 2006; Pollack, 2007; Hindle, 2011). For instance, Brocklesby (1995) claimed that SSM helps improve the understanding of situations under study by means of “participants’ self- reflective enquiry.” In addition, Brocklesby (1995) maintained that SSM follows the interpretive tradition and is commonly employed as an epistemological tool that enables a greater understanding and appreciation of the problematical situation.
Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005) elucidated that various actors involved in the given problematical situation tend to evaluate and perceive the changing flux of events and ideas associated with the situation – subsequently constructing problems that must be addressed. This view buttressed Brocklesby’s (1995) self-reflective enquiry argument regarding SSM. Thus, as Pollack (2007) has asserted, SSM is closely associated with “an interpretive epistemology, inductive reasoning, and exploratory, qualitative techniques, which emphasise contextual relevance rather than objectivity.” Indeed, various practitioners such as Checkland (2000), Feather and Sturges (2003), Checkland and Poulter (2006), and Hindle (2011) have demonstrated that SSM considers any perceived problems to be always inherently subjective. This has been attributed to the importance of the concept of Weltanschauung and the multiple perspectives of a problematical situation (Mingers & Taylor, 1992; Checkland & Poulter, 2006, 2010).
But perhaps the more solid underpinnings of the SSM interpretive paradigm can be found to be deeply rooted in its intrinsic features. Checkland (1989) provided a detailed description of the general features of SSM that fortify its interpretive foundation, namely: (1) SSM posits that due to the autonomy of individuals and groups, widely varying evaluations are often generated eventually leading to different actions; (2) it assumes that “in consciously articulating the process of perceiving, evaluating and deciding to act, system ideas would be helpful”; (3) it takes consideration of the requirement for describing “any human activity in relation to a particular image of the world”; (4) it compares pure models of human activity systems with perceptions of real-world situations; and (5) it is a participative process since it is essentially “an articulation of a complex social process in which assumptions about the world – the relevant myths and meanings as well as the logics of achieving purposes which are expressed in the system models are teased out, challenged and tested” and hence proceeds via debate.
It is therefore clear that these intrinsic features of SSM result in subjectivity. This subjectivity/ interpretivism argument was strongly supported by many authors such as Atkinson (1984); Mingers (1984); Rennie (1989); Crowe, Beeby and Gammack (1996), Jackson (2006), and Stowell (2009) who all claimed that SSM falls within the phenomenological tradition, which is in turn, linked with qualitative research methods (Patton, 1990). Thus, there is virtually an absence of neither debate nor disagreement as to the interpretivist paradigm of SSM.
SSM has been successfully applied in various learning environments such as in undergraduate teaching and learning (Patel, 1994); in the design of an education programme (Tsoi, 2004); in module development (Hindle, 2011); and in managed learning (Hardman & Paucar-Caceres, 2011). Tsoi (2004) has highlighted the usefulness of SSM in establishing a new methodology for designing an education programme. In the same vein, in the study conducted by Hindle (2011), the utility of SSM in the development of a case study and a teaching module has been documented. Furthermore, results of the literature review have identified the following key themes relevant to SSM: (1) one of its key goals is to evaluate extant systems by distinguishing current systems (Kayrooz & Trevitt, 2004), by separating ‘real-world’ from the systems thinking world (Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres, 2004; Baskerville, Pries-Heje & Venable, 2009); and by structuring the problem (Kotiadis & Robinson, 2008, Montevechi & Friend, 2012); and (2) it brings about changes and improvements to extant systems by advancing forward thinking agreements for action (Checkland, 1999 cited in Somerville & Howard, 2008; Watson, 2012).
2.3.3 The Seven Stages
The resilience of the seven stages version of SSM has been highlighted by Checkland (2000) who asserted that it can be readily understood since the stages unfold in a logical sequence. Additionally, Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres (2004,) assert that the seven stages version of SSM “is still the most convincing and helpful account of the SSM enquiry.” The seven stages version is closely linked with the Mode1 type of enquiry which has been described by Turner (2008) in the following manner:
Mode 1 is seen as an ‘intervention’ into the problem situation, and the underlying intentions are to provide those coming from outside the organisation carrying out the ‘enquiry’ with further insight into SSM itself and those from within the organisation who own the problem with a good idea of how to go about improving the ‘problem situation’. (Turner, 2008, p.39).
Although this researcher comes from within the MOI, the Mode 1 type of enquiry is considered appropriate for the present study due to the following reasons: (1) it is applicable for undertaking a study and is “more accessible to the novice, with more specific activities in the stages and less generalized iteration” than the latter (Baskerville, Pries-Heje & Venable (2009); and (2) it is typically undertaken by novice researchers as opposed to systems practitioners.
Basically, the SSM concept is hinged on the use of two features, namely: (1) the problem as it is understood in the ‘real world’; and (2) the problem as it is analysed in the ‘systems world’. Results of the analysis and conclusions drawn “from the latter are then brought back into the ‘real world’ with a more substantial understanding of the problem and thus, possible routes to solutions” (Cassidy & Cassidy, 2012). Figure 3.1 presents the conceptual framework of the present study, which is comprised by the seven stages version of SSM. As seen in Figure 3.1, stage 1 and 2 of SSM involve finding out about the problem situation (stage 1) and subsequently expressing it in rich pictures (stage 2). Stage 3 of SSM involves naming relevant human activity systems in ‘root definitions’ which is guided by a technique called CATWOE Analysis. Stage 4 involves building conceptual models from root definitions. Stage 4 consists of comparing the conceptual models with the perceived reality. Stage 6 involves making feasible, desirable changes based on the results of chapter 4. Finally, Stage 7 involves taking action to improve the problematical situation (Baskerville, Pries-Heje & Venable, 2009). Figure 2.1 presents the conceptual framework of this study which is basically comprised by the seven stages version of SSM.
Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework of the Present Study – Seven Stages Version of SSM
Source: Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres (2004)
The seven stages version of SSM is discussed in more detail in the succeeding paragraphs.
Stage 1: Finding Out About the Problem Situation
The first stage involves acknowledging and defining the problematical situation and subsequently assessing why it is particularly important (Ramadhan, Sensuse & Arymurthy 2012). Williams (2004) explains that stage 1 requires an initial collection of relevant literature and other resources such as focus groups or whatever is appropriate to gain a comprehensive understanding and initial explanation of the problem. Williams (2004) further elucidates that stage 1 is a preliminary evaluation and may change as the problematical situations becomes better understood. Checkland (1989) recommends that the researcher bear in mind that “the personality traits, experience, knowledge, and interests of” the investigator will impact on “what is noticed and what is taken to be significant.”
Stage 2: Problem Expression Expressed
Stage 2 of SSM involves the expression of the problem in rich pictures. This is required in order to examine the problem situation in a holistic manner. The expression of the problem in rich pictures is a powerful step to gain an understanding of the phenomena and events occurring in a particular system of reference where “something is not working well and something needs to be done to improve the problem situation” (Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres, 2004). Cassidy and Cassidy (2012) explain that “rich pictures are cartoon like drawings or sketches, illustrating the different aspects of the problem to be analysed.” Rich pictures are considered epistemological tools that help capture the real situation more vividly (Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres, 2004).
Stage 3: Problem-Oriented Root Definitions
Stage 3 of the SSM involves the formulation of root definitions which describe the purpose of the different systems or the processes of the system- in- question (Ramadhan, Sensuse & Arymurthy, 2012; Staadt, 2012). The ‘root definitions’ afford an ideal mental construct of what the system- in -question must attain (Davis, 2009). Platt and Warwick (1994) and Ramadhan, Sensuse & Arymurthy (2012) elucidate that these root definitions are formulated with the use of six key elements that are represented in the CATWOE analysis which is a mnemonic code for the following: (1) ‘C’, which stands for customers, pertains to those who are the people affected by the system- in -question, who could either be beneficiaries or victims of said system; (2) ‘A’, which stands for actor, pertains to those people participating in the system- in- question; (3) ‘T’, which stands for transformation, pertains to the core of the root definition- the transformation carried out by the system in -question; (4) ‘W’, which stands for weltanschauung or world view — which is responsible for the actual sense making of the root definition being developed for the system- in -question; (4) ‘O’, which stands for ownership, pertains to the persons with the authority to decide on the future of the system- in -question; and (6) ‘E’, which stands for environment, pertains to the wider system or the wider environment in which the system- in -question operates. Cassidy and Cassidy (2012, p. 41) further define the environment as “the world that surrounds and influences the system, but has no control over it.” Checkland (1990, cited in Cassidy & Cassidy, 2012, p. 41) points out that “the environment lies outside the system boundary and the constraints are the assumed impositions.” In addition, Platt and Warwick (1994) recommend the incorporation of the often diverse views of individuals regarding the system- in -question since such views often lead to the formulation of inferences which are not explicit.
Stage 4: Creation of Conceptual Models
The fourth stage of the SSM involves the formulation of a conceptual model, which must be designed, with the primary purpose of identifying the minimum required activities for the system-in-question or human activity system (HAS). It must represent the relationships between the activities and must be based solely on the root definition (Platt & Warwick, 1994). The conceptual model must also be able to show “all the necessary components of the transformation of input to output as described in the root definition” and subsequently present the subsystems that can be drawn from the model in a process called ‘decomposing’ which will show how “sub systems can then be developed individually” (Cassidy & Cassidy, 2012). In addition, the activities must be expressed to show “what is being done as opposed to how it is done. How an activity is achieved can be used within the root definition as a constraint of the system, such as how a particular activity will be controlled” (Cassidy & Cassidy, 2012). Platt and Warwick (1994) recommend the inclusion of all the elements of the CATWOE mnemonic in the conceptual model, but at the same time, the exclusion of the knowledge of the ‘real world.’
Stage 5: Comparison between the Conceptual Model and the Real World
The fifth stage of the SSM involves comparing the conceptual model with the real world (Cassidy & Cassidy, 2012; Staadt, 2012; White, 2012). The purpose of such comparison is to determine if there are potential changes or modifications in the real world since it is likely that activities represented in the conceptual model “do not exist in the real world (Platt & Warwick, 1994). Thus, this particular stage of the SSM is represented by a shift back form systems thinking to the real world flux of events and ideas (Baskerville, Pries-Heje & Venable, 2009).
Stage 6: Identification of Desirable Changes
The sixth stage of the SSM involves making modifications to the conceptual model in order to incorporate the interests of the actors (Ramadhan, Sensuse & Arymurthy, 2012). Any disparity arising from the comparison between the conceptual model and the real world (stage 4) will serve as the recommendation for change. However, differences between the conceptual model and the real world must not “never result” in the modification of the conceptual model since the conceptual model already represents the activities for the emergent properties of the system- in -question (Platt & Warwick, 1994). In addition, this stage should also take into consideration whether or not the identified areas for improvement are acceptable and thus, can be eventually integrated into the new model (Baskerville, Pries-Heje & Venable, 2009). In addition, modifications should follow the desired model and be informed by historical, cultural and political aspects whenever feasible. These modifications “may include changes in attitudes, structures or procedures” (Ramadhan, Sensuse & Arymurthy, 2012, p. 149).
Stage 7: Taking Action to Bring About Improvement
The seventh stage involves taking action in order to bring about improvement by implementing the model and fixing the identified problem (s) (Platt & Warwick, 1994; Checkland, 2000; Baskerville, Pries-Heje & Venable, 2009; Ramadhan, Sensuse & Arymurthy, 2012). Ramadhan, Sensuse & Arymurthy (2012, p. 149) assert that “in this step, the conclusions are drawn and long-term solution is formulated.”
2.3.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of SSM
According to Mingers & Taylor (1992), SSM’s strength rests on its consideration of the social, political and historical aspects of the problematical situation. This has been buttressed by the claims of Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) who elucidated that one of the key strengths of SSM with reference to measuring system performance rests on its ability to explicitly cope with the diverse perspectives of stakeholders through the Weltanschauung or the world-view concept. This subsequently results in the reflection of the needs of the different stakeholders within the context of the system in question (Hardman & Paucar-Caceres, 2011). Indeed, many authors considered this interpretive paradigm of SSM as its key strength (Doyle & Wood, 1991; Flood & Jackson, 1991; Flood & Ulrich, 1991; Crowe, Beeby & Gammack., 1996; Stowell, 2009). As Stowell (1993) asserted, SSM’s mode two type of enquiry is “the clearest example of interpretive systems that exists in a practical form.”
On the other hand, Mingers (1984), Flood and Jackson (1991), Rose and Hanes (1991), Jackson (1982, 2003), and Lane and Oliva (1994) uncovered the limitations associated with SSM. They all argued that SSM, in essence, could not be considered a problem-solving methodology due to its interpretive foundation. Lane and Oliva (1994) asserted that SSM is a methodology that is based on the examination of the ‘real-world’ perspective whose models are not accurate representations of the real-world and are thus, not normative. SSM from the viewpoint of Lane and Oliva (1994) is largely a framework of ideal situations. Moreover, Birgitta (2002) argued that due to the very subjective character of SSM, it bears the tendency to lead to regulatory, as opposed to “radical agendas for change.” In addition, Rose and Hanes (1991) maintained that SSM is time consuming and was considered predominantly prescriptive in its early days of use. In addition, Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005) found the that the modelling stage particularly limits the intervention due to its failure to afford a technological tool that can be used to help grasp the consequences of the suggested models, resulting in the lack of realization of the impacts of the proposed changes by the analyst. To enrich and further appreciate the intervention, Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005) suggested the incorporation of system dynamics modelling features.
Table 2.6 shows the summary of the results of the literature review relevant to the strengths and weaknesses of SSM.
Table 2.6 Literature Review Matrix of the Strengths and Weaknesses of SSM
| Main Theme | Authors | ||
| Strength of SSM | Doyle & Wood (1991); Flood & Jackson (1991); Flood & Ulrich (1991); Stowell (1993); Crowe at al. (1996); Stowell (2009) | Mingers & Taylor (1992) | Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) |
| Interpretivist paradigm of SSM | SSM considers the social, political and historical aspects of the problem | SSM’s Weltanschauung or the world-view concept | |
| Weakness of SSM | Mingers (1984), Flood and Jackson (1991), Rose and Hanes (1991), Jackson (1992, 2003), and Lane and Oliva (1994); Birgitta, 2002) | Rose and Hanes (1991) | Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres (2005) |
| Interpretivist paradigm of SSM | SSM is time consuming and prescriptive | The modelling stage limits the intervention and needs to be complemented with system dynamics modelling features | |
Source: Made by the Researcher
As shown in Table 2.6, the interpretive paradigm of SSM is considered its key strength as well as its major weakness. Perhaps this dilemma can best be resolved by careful consideration of what is understood by the term ‘interpretive’ within the SSM context, such as ‘interpretive’ as in the case of the Weltanschauung or the world-view concept (strength) or ‘interpretive’ as in the case of non-normative frameworks of ideal situations (weakness).
2.3.5 SSM Applications in Learning Environments
Although by meaning making, the term ‘vocational training’ has often been construed to be somewhat “narrow and function-specific” (Devlin, 2000), such practical or experiential knowledge nevertheless shares prestige with “the scientific disciplines and constituted fields” (Mayen, 2011). Thus, a review of literature relevant to the application of SSM in academic fields and in learning systems in general is required – since knowledge acquisition, is also a key feature of vocational training systems (Mayen, 2011). However, there seems to be a lack in studies that are relevant to the utility of SSM in training systems and only a few studies that focused on the applications of SSM in learning environments were found in extant literature. These studies focused on the examination of the effectiveness of SSM in evaluating the process of teaching and learning at undergraduate education (Patel, 1995), in designing an education programme (Tsoi, 2001), in module development (Hindle, 2011), and in evaluating systems performance in a managed learning environment (Hardman & Paucar-Caceres, 2011).
2.3.5.1 Teaching and Learning at Undergraduate Education
To gain a deeper understanding of the process of teaching and learning at undergraduate education in general, Patel (1995) used SSM to conduct an audit of the teaching and learning strategies employed in the delivery of academic subjects to undergraduate students. In particular, Patel (1995) monitored relevant teaching and learning activities and subsequently compared them to a set of predetermined performance measures. In addition, Patel (1995) provided a detailed discussion of the manner by which SSM can be used to identify the problem and “to generate recommendations for improving the expressed problem area.” In conclusion, Patel (1995) highlighted the usefulness of SSM in analysing real-world concerns pertaining to the field of educational practice. Although the focus of Patel (1995)’s study is on a type of formal education, it remains relevant to the present study because it specified the different steps employed to carry out SSM to evaluate the performance of an educational practice against a set of performance criteria – which is the main thrust of the present study. As such, this study offers a sound methodological insight to the present study. However, this study was very descriptive in nature and was more of a reflective work, thereby lacking in critical analysis of the information presented. Moreover, it failed to discuss the data collection method used, the types of data gathered and the results of data analysis.
2.3.5.2 Designing an Education Programme
Tsoi (2004) investigated the effectiveness of applying SSM to establish a new methodology for designing an education programme within a Computer Science Department of a medium-sized, private, post-secondary, catholic college in Hong Kong. Tsoi (2004) modified the ‘Checkland methodology’, which consisted of seven stages to conduct the study. Tsoi’s (2004) version of the SSM consisted of eight basic stages and was named Soft Systems Programme Planning Methodology (SSPPM). The eight basic stages were as follows: (1) environmental scoping and analysis; (2) analysis of the programme design issues from a social perspective; (3) analysis of the programme design issues from an organisational perspective; (4) analysis of the different perceptions of stakeholders regarding the issues affecting the programme; (5) formulation of root definitions; (6) comparison between the conceptual model and the real-world views of the programme; (7) debate with the stakeholders regarding the final programme structure; and (8) modifying the programme based on the results of the debate. Tsoi (2004) found SSPPM effective in considering all related information and limitations before the design of the new programme.
Whilst this contribution is a modified version of the standard, widely-used ‘Checkland methodology’, it nevertheless included the fundamental stages of the ‘Checkland methodology’ such as problem structuring, which, in this case, involved stages 1 to 4; formulation of root definitions; comparison between the conceptual model and the real-world views; evaluation of the models; and taking appropriate action based on the evaluation. Furthermore, this contribution is relevant to the present study because the focus of the investigation is on an education programme which is essentially a form of knowledge acquisition. Although the focus of the present study is on vocational training, as opposed to academic, formal education – it is still deemed relevant to the present study since as Mayen (2011) asserted, “practical intelligence and occupational skills and know-how are recognized as forms of knowledge just as noble as academic forms.” In addition, SSM was used by Tsoi (2004) as the overarching approach in designing an education programme, which is also the proposed methodology of the present study. However, this contribution did not present the results of the evaluation and did not provide a discussion on the performance measures used in assessing the effectiveness of the design of the new education programme.
2.3.5.3 Module Development
Hindle (2011) discussed the teaching of soft systems methodology (SSM) to selected undergraduate, postgraduate, and executive students in the UK and suggested a blueprint for a module. The research procedures employed by Hindle consisted of the following: (1) situation mapping; (2) systems modelling; and (3) action planning. In situation mapping, the study participants created a freehand representation of the situation to identify its main elements that include the “basic structure, stakeholder views, and environmental constraints” and to determine the major issues or problems In systems modelling, a range of systems models relevant to the situation were developed resulting in three options. Finally, in action planning, ideas and action plans were developed to address the problems. In this particular stage, each developed model was compared with existing modules to determine the differences between them. Such comparison enabled each participant to assess the viability and desirability of implementing new ideas and module designs. In conclusion, Hindle considered “SSM as an all-purpose approach to tackling complex situations, which can be conceived as an experiential learning cycle.”
This contribution is helpful for the present study because it helps illuminate the required actions necessary to deal with a complex learning situation, to come up with the most appropriate solution, and to use systems modelling to structure discussion between stakeholders. The overall research methodology employed by Hindle is very similar to that proposed by this researcher. Hindle used SSM in developing a case study and a teaching module that were actually improvements of their previous versions. Similarly, the proposed methodology of the present study involves the following steps, namely: (1) an accurate identification of the problem through the use of SSM; (2) development of a set of performance measures to assess the effectiveness of the training courses offered by IAD prior to the actual conduct of the research and after improvements or changes are incorporated with the courses, with the use of SSM; and (3) designing new courses based on the results of the evaluation undertaken in step 2. However, a key limitation of this study is that students with little experience of the real world are likely to find developing the set of performance measures and subsequently designing new courses based on the evaluation results particularly daunting and difficult. In addition, this study was conducted in the UK setting and the results may not be applicable to the specific context of IAD.
2.3.5.4 Managed Learning
The utility of SSM in evaluating systems performance in the field of managed learning has been demonstrated by Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) who used the seven-step version of the SSM to evaluate the managed learning environment at Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU). Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) justified the use of the seven-step version of the SSM by asserting that it closely depicts “a real-world and a purely conceptual world.” Furthermore, Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) used the following performance measures developed by Checkland and Scholes (2003), namely: efficacy (E1); efficiency (E2); effectiveness (E3); ethicality (E4); and elegance (E5). These performance measures, as explained by Checkland (1981, 1999) are specifically designed to assess the success or failure of the system’s transformation process.
Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) found that SSM effectively coped with the evaluation framework based on the criteria set within the MMU context. The criteria were based on stakeholder expectations across two iterations, namely: availability of the system (hard issues), and the impact of culture on the students (soft issues). However, one important issue that emerged from the study was that by contextualising SSM to the evaluation requirements of a managed learning environment, a need to adjust the performance measures suggested by SSM surfaced.
With reference to the current study which focuses on IAD’s training system, Hardman and Paucar-Caceres’ (2011) study can help illuminate the methodological approach that would be deemed most appropriate for the current study in terms of the following considerations, namely: (1) the particular version of the SSM that must be adopted; and (2) the performance measures that should be used to assess the current training system being used by IAD. These considerations are anchored on the similarity of the current study with the study conducted by Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) in terms of the evaluation of the impact of culture on the students or trainees.
Table 2.7 below shows the literature review matrix of the summary of results of the review relevant to studies that focused on SSM Applications in learning environments.
Table 2.7 Literature Review Matrix Relevant to SSM Applications in Learning Systems
| Main Themes | Authors | |||
| Main Thrust of the Study | Patel (1995) | Tsoi (2004) | Hindle (2011) | Hardman and Paucar-Caceres (2011) |
| Teaching and Learning at Undergraduate Education | Designing an Education Programme | Module Development | Managed Learning | |
| Specific Application of SSM | Audit of the teaching and learning strategies at an undergraduate level | Evaluation of current education programme and design of an improved version | Identification of issues and development of a case study and a teaching module | Evaluation of systems performance of a managed learning environment |
| Version of the SSM Used | Seven Stages | Eight Stages (Modification of the Seven Stages Version) | Four Stages | Seven Stages |
| Key Findings | SSM was useful in assessing real-world concerns of educational practice | SSM was effective in considering all related information and limitations prior to the design of the new education programme | SSM is a multi-purpose approach to addressing complex situations. It is an ‘experiential learning cycle.’ | SSM effectively coped with the evaluation framework based on the criteria set within the context of a managed learning environment |
| Limitations | More of a reflective work, lacking in critical analysis | Failed to provide a discussion on the performance measures used in assessing the effectiveness of the design of the new education programme | Students with little experience of the real world are likely to find developing the set of performance measures difficult | There was a need to adjust the performance measures suggested by SSM |
Source: Made by the Researcher
The aforementioned studies revealed the utility of SSM in problem-structuring, in the development of performance measures that will be used to assess the performance of the system in question, and in building conceptual models to improve the system in question. As such, they are all deemed relevant to the present study. However, all of these studies were within the context of academic teaching and learning. Hence, there is a lack in studies that focus on training systems in general, and on vocational training, in particular.
2.4 Systems Thinking and the Learning Organization
This subsection will discuss the results of the literature review related to the systems thinking concept and its application and utility in training.
2.4.1 The Concept of Systems Thinking
2.4.1.1. Working Definitions of Systems Thinking
The presence of numerous definitions of systems thinking and conversely, the lack of a univocal definition has been highlighted in extant literature (Frank & Waks, 2001; Cabrera, Colosi & Lobdell, 2008; Kiani, Mirzamohammadi & Hosseini, 2010; Besiou, Stapleton & Van Wassenhove, 2012; Ferrat, 2014). For instance, Senge (1990) defined systems thinking as “a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things, for seeing patterns rather than static snapshots. It is a set of general principles spanning fields as diverse as physical and social sciences, engineering and management.” In essence, therefore, Senge (1993) regarded systems thinking also as a skill that helps an individual: (1) look at feedback and processes of change instead of taking snapshots; and (2) consider interrelationships rather than linear cause -effect chains. Similarly, Richmond (1993) defined systems thinking as a set of skills needed for the competent use of simulation software to facilitate dynamic thinking, closed-loop thinking, generic thinking, structural thinking, operational thinking, continuum thinking and scientific thinking.
Within the context of organizational learning, Senge (1990) elucidated that systems thinking involves “a shift of minds from seeing parts to seeing wholes, from seeing people as helpless reactors to seeing them as active participants in shaping their reality, from reacting to the present to creating the future.” Senge (1990) explained that the differences in mental models explained the rationale behind the subjectivity involved in looking at the same thing, yet interpreting it differently. These mental models are “deeply ingrained-assumptions, generalizations, or even pictures and images that influence how we understand the world and how we take action.” As a result, mental models place a limit on the ability of an individual to change due to the likelihood of most people to become “drawn to take in and remember the information that reinforces existing mental models” Systems thinking affords individuals a flexible language that enables the expansion and reshaping of our ordinary ways of thinking insofar as complex issues are concerned
In O’Connor & McDermott’s (1997) viewpoint, systems thinking can be described in the following manner:
Our normal pursuit from a cause and effect perspective is to try and find where the fault lies. A systems thinking perspective, however, enables us to understand…why simply faultfinding is such a futile activity. Systems thinking enables one to progress beyond simply seeing events to seeing patterns…Systems thinking looks at the whole, and the parts, and the interconnection among the parts, studying the whole in order to understand the parts. It is the opposite of reductionism..
In the same vein, Oosterwal (2010) defined systems thinking as an approach that is aimed at investigating “complex problems by understanding the dynamic interdependencies and causal relationships associated with systems issues.” Ferrat (2014) explained that in the context of information systems teaching, systems thinking is viewed as an approach that students as ‘systems analysts’ could use when undertaking systems analysis and design. Ferrat (2014) elaborated that such approach involves gaining an understanding of the general systems theory which posits that “a system consists of interacting subsystems, a system with its subsystems exists within a larger environment, and systems seek multiple goals.”
Similarly, Mingers and White (2010) also considered systems thinking as an approach which involves the following:
- Viewing the situation holistically, as opposed to reductionistically, as a set of diverse interacting elements within an environment.
- Recognising that the relationships or interactions between elements are more important than the elements themselves in determining the behaviour of the system.
- Recognising a hierarchy of levels of systems and the consequent ideas of properties emerging at different levels, and mutual causality both within and between levels.
- Accepting, especially in social systems, that people will act in accordance with differing purposes or rationalities.
Despite the diversity in working definitions of systems thinking found in extant literature, they can nonetheless be circumscribed under certain dominant attributes which include the following ascriptions to systems thinking: (1) a framework (Senge, 1990); (2) a skill (Senge, 1990; Richmond, 1993); (3) an approach (Mingers & White, 2010; Ferrat, 2014); (4) a holistic view (Senge, 1990; O’Connor & McDermott, 1997); (5) an analytical tool that looks at interrelationships amongst subsystems (Senge, 1990; Mingers & White, 2010; Oosterwal, 2010; Ferrat, 2014); and a paradigm shift (Senge, 1990; O’Connor & McDermott, 1997; Mingers & White, 2010). Table 2.8 presents a summary of the results of the literature review related to the various working definitions of systems thinking.
Table 2.8 Summary of the Results of Literature Review Related to the Systems Thinking Concept
| Author | Working Definition | Ascriptions Made to Systems Thinking |
| Senge (1990) | “A framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things, for seeing patterns rather than static snapshots. It is a set of general principles spanning fields as diverse as physical and social sciences, engineering and management.” |
|
| Richmond (1993) | A set of skills needed for the competent use of simulation software to facilitate dynamic thinking, closed-loop thinking, generic thinking, structural thinking, operational thinking, continuum thinking and scientific thinking |
|
| O’Connor & McDermott (1997) | “[…] Systems thinking looks at the whole, and the parts, and the interconnection among the parts, studying the whole in order to understand the parts. It is the opposite of reductionism.” |
|
| Oosterwal (2010) | Investigates “complex problems by understanding the dynamic interdependencies and causal relationships associated with systems issues.” |
|
| Mingers and White (2010) | Involves “viewing the situation holistically, as opposed to reductionistically, as a set of diverse interacting elements within an environment.” |
|
| Ferrat (2014) | An approach that is based on the general systems theory which posits that “a system consists of interacting subsystems, a system with its subsystems exists within a larger environment, and systems seek multiple goals.” |
|
Source: Created by the Researcher
Due to the comprehensiveness of the scope of the working definition put forth by Senge (1990) as evidenced by his various ascriptions to systems thinking (see Table 2.8), as well as its applicability to organisational learning, the present study therefore adopts Senge’s (1990) definition of systems thinking.
2.4.2. The Concept of Systems Dynamics (SD)
Central to systems thinking are the core concepts of: (1) Soft Systems Methodology (SSM); and System Dynamics (SD). SSM has been covered in Sections 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 of this chapter. Thus, this subsection will be devoted to the discussion of SD. Results of the review related to SD point to its lack of a univocal definition since various researchers have formulated different working definitions of the term. This may be attributable to ongoing academic debate regarding the core nature of SD —whether SD is a quantitative or a qualitative paradigm. For instance, there is a stream of literature that considers SD a purely quantitative paradigm (Forrester, 1969; Coyle, 1977; Roberts, 1978; Meadows, 1982; Coyle, 2000; Linder, 2008; Kiani, Mirzamohammadi & Hosseini, 2010; Riccucci, 2010; Wang, Wang and Chen, 2012). On the hand, there is another stream of literature that associates SD to a qualitative paradigm (Senge, 1993; Pollack, 2007; Besiou, Stapleton & Van Wassenhove, 2010).
Sanderson and Gruen (2006) maintained that SD is basically a combination of flow and influence models. Linder (2008) claimed that SD is a quantitative approach that focusses on the use of mathematical models that was developed by Jay Forrester during the 1950s. Linder (2008) explicated that SD models that were based on engineering feedback concepts were used by Forrester to diagnose complex managerial problems. Burandt (2011) supported this claim and elucidated that SD’s association with the quantitative perspective has been attributed to Forrester’s (1987) concepts of industrial dynamics and system dynamics. Burandt (2011) argued that the application of Forrester’s (1987) concepts require the use of simulation software and are anchored on a strictly quantitative paradigm. In the same vein, Riccucci (2010) elucidated that SD is primarily underpinned by mathematical reasoning; and requires the use of computer-based modelling methods and information-feedback structures, or loops. Wang, Wang and Chen (2012) argued that SD is “a quantitative method for studying complex systems based on feedback control theory.”
On the other hand, Vester (1989, cited in Burandt, 2011) circumscribed SD under the qualitative paradigm. Vester’s (1989) concept of SD as explained by Gomez and Probst (1995, cited in Burandt, 2011) is employed as a methodological approach used to model and evaluate systems by relying solely on the use of flowcharts to identify relevant feedback loops and system components without the help of a simulation software. According to Wolstenholme (1990; cited in Kennedy, 2011) SD is a “rigorous method for qualitative description, exploration and analysis of complex systems in terms of their processes, information, organizational boundaries and strategies.” Pollack (2007) also explained that SD is “associated with an interpretive epistemology, inductive reasoning, and exploratory, qualitative techniques, which emphasize contextual relevance rather than objectivity.” Pollack (2007) pointed out that SD is anchored on facilitated exploration, participation and on learning. Wolstenholme (1990; cited in Kennedy, 2011) considered SD a “rigorous method for qualitative description, exploration and analysis of complex systems in terms of their processes, information, organizational boundaries and strategies.”
It has been argued that the quantitative nature of SD is better when it comes to gaining a deeper understanding of the system under investigation, compared to the qualitative paradigm. Within the context of policy analysis, Coyle (1977) viewed the quantitative perspective as highly capable of simulating the dynamics of a problematical situation since it facilitates an appreciable understanding of the system in question. In his more recent contribution, Coyle (2000) highlighted the importance of a quantified simulation within the context of policy analysis. On the other hand, Besiou, Stapleton & Van Wassenhove (2012) argued that prior to conducting a quantitative simulation modelling; the use of qualitative methods in obtaining data about the system in question would result in more rigorous data gathering. Coyle (2000) also admitted that a key limitation of the quantitative SD paradigm is that the researcher has to resolve quantification difficulties when modelling hard variables. Thus, in reconciling the arguments of the academic debate, Richardson (1999) argued that each paradigm has its own advantages and limitations; and the decision as to whether to map or to model is left to the researcher to make, depending on the goals of the SD investigation. Table 2.9 summarizes the results of the literature review relevant to the SD concept.
Table 2.9 Summary of the Results of the Literature Review Related to the Concept of SD
| Author | Working Definition of SD | Paradigm |
| Wolstenholme (1990; cited in Kennedy, 2011) | “Rigorous method for qualitative description, exploration and analysis of complex systems in terms of their processes, information, organizational boundaries and strategies.” | Qualitative |
| Sanderson and Gruen (2006) | A combination of flow and influence models | Quantitative |
| Linder (2008) | Primarily underpinned by mathematical reasoning; and requires the use of computer-based modelling methods and information-feedback structures, or loops | Quantitative |
| Gomez and Probst (1995, cited in Burandt, 2011) | Employed as a methodological approach used to model and evaluate systems by relying solely on the use of flowcharts to identify relevant feedback loops and system components without the help of simulation software | Qualitative |
| Pollack (2007) | “Associated with an interpretive epistemology, inductive reasoning, and exploratory, qualitative techniques, which emphasize contextual relevance rather than objectivity.” | Qualitative |
| Riccucci (2010) | A quantitative approach that focusses on the use of mathematical models | Quantitative |
| Wang, Wang and Chen (2012) | “A quantitative method for studying complex systems based on feedback control theory.” | Quantitative |
| Wolstenholme (1990; cited in Kennedy, 2011) | “Rigorous method for qualitative description, exploration and analysis of complex systems in terms of their processes, information, organizational boundaries and strategies.” | Qualitative |
Source: Created by the Researcher
2.4.2.1 Applications of SD
The utility of SD in various situations have been documented in extant literature. In policy formulation and analysis, Kiani, Mirzamohammadi & Hosseini (2010), Janamanchi (2011), and Kennedy (2011) claimed that SD is well- suited for use in the design of corporate and public sector policies. Several authors have highlighted the utility of SD in ascertaining the impacts of decisions because of its ability to identify “vicious or virtuous circles of cause and effect” that often lead to “stable or unstable behaviour of the system as a whole – or parts of it” (Sanderson & Gruen, 2006). Trailer and Garsson (2005) noted that SD modelling enables the separation of single variable adjustments for evaluation, and hence affords “policy-makers a means of testing alternative policies to determine their potential impact.” SD has also been applied in: (1) project management (Godlewski, Lee & Cooper, 2012); (2) organisational management (Han et. al., 2009; Besiou, Stapleton & Van Wassenhove, 2012); (3) strategy (Gary et. al., 2008); and (4) business management (Oosterwal, 2010).
Extant literature hence highlights the utility of SD in many disciplines. For instance, Kiani, Mirzamohammadi and Hosseini (2010) stressed that SD is well-suited for dynamic systems in general and is widely used in various domains such as theory development in the natural and social sciences, public management, energy and environment, biological and medical disciplines, corporate planning, etc. Similarly, Mingers and White (2010) claimed that SD has many contributions in various areas that include the following: strategy, information systems and knowledge management, organisations and corporate social responsibility, production, TQM, project management, agriculture, ecology and the environment, medicine and health, operational research, and management science. Indeed, in an earlier contribution, Sterman (2000) asserted that SD has been proven helpful in a diverse range of industries — from aircraft to zinc. Thus, results of the review suggest the utility of SD in a wide range of disciplines, making it a useful framework that can be applied in both private and public-sector organizations, particularly in the fields of human resources management and knowledge management.
In his seminal work on systems thinking entitled The Fifth Discipline, Senge (1990) highlighted the importance of applying systems thinking and the key principles of SD in the attainment of the goals of the ‘learning organization.’ In this contribution, Senge (1990) introduced his systems thinking model as well as the allegories that characterise system thinking principles. Senge (1990) identified five disciplines that often characterise learning organizations, namely: personal mastery, mental models, a shared vision, team learning, and systems thinking. Systems thinking, Senge (1990) explicated, is the fifth discipline which is important for organisations wishing to undertake organizational change or seek to continuously improve. According to Senge (1990), the following allegories limit the usefulness of systems thinking: (1) Today’s problems come from yesterday’s solutions; (2) The harder you push, the harder the system pushes back; (3) Behaviour gets better before it gets worse; (4) The easy way out usually leads back in; (5)The cure can be worse that the disease; (6) Faster is slower; (7) Cause and effect are not closely related in time and space; (8) Small changes can produce big results; but the areas of highest leverage are often the least obvious; (9) You can have your cake and eat it too – but not all at once; (10) Dividing an elephant in half does not produce two small elephants; and (10) There is no blame.
Senge and Sterman (1990) asserted that the ‘learning organisation’ imbibes a central dogma that is anchored on “vision, values and mental models.” De Gues (1988) defined the term ‘learning organisation’ as an organisation that relies on institutional learning to be able to survive over an extended period. De Gues (1988; cited in Senge & Sterman (1990) further elaborated that institutional learning pertains to the process whereby management teams change their shared mental models of their company, their markets and their competitors. Linard and Aretz (2000), on the other hand, enumerated the following salient characteristics of the ‘learning organisation’, namely: (1) addresses future practice; (2) has unbounded knowledge; (3) promotes debate; (4) has outward focus; (5) encourages reflection; and (6) empowerment. It is in this context that Senge and Sterman (1990), and Linard and Aretz (2000), and Thornton, Peltier and Perreault (2004) regarded systems thinking as a tool that facilitates the attainment of goals related to organisational change and continuous improvement. Table 2.10 presents a summary of the results of literature review related to the applications of SD.
Table 2.10 Summary of Literature Review Results Related to the Different Applications of SD
| Authors | Function of SD | Area (s) of Application |
| Sanderson and Gruen (2006, p.22 ) | Identifies “vicious or virtuous circles of cause and effect” that often lead to “stable or unstable behaviour of the system as a whole – or parts of it” | Policy making |
| Trailer and Garsson (2005) | Affords “policy-makers a means of testing alternative policies to determine their potential impact.” | Policy making |
| Godlewski, Lee & Cooper (2012) | Helps resolve important issues or problems in project management | Project management |
| Han et. al. (2009)
Besiou, Stapleton & Van Wassenhove (2012) |
Addresses key issues in organisational management | Organisational management |
| Gary et. al. (2008) | Addresses concerns related to strategic management
Helps identify how decision making can promote dynamics |
Strategy |
| Oosterwal (2010) | Helps simplify interdependencies of complex business systems | Business Management |
| Kiani, Mirzamohammadi and Hosseini (2010) | Useful in a wide variety of areas that include theory development in the natural and social sciences, public management, energy and environment, biological and medical disciplines, corporate planning, etc. | Multidisciplinary |
| Mingers and White (2010) | Useful in various disciplines : strategy, information systems and knowledge management, organisations and corporate social responsibility, production, TQM, project management, agriculture, ecology and the environment, medicine and health, operational research, and management science | Multidisciplinary |
| Sterman (2000) | Has been proven helpful in a diverse range of industries — from aircraft to zinc | Multidisciplinary |
| Senge (1990); Linard & Aretz (2000); Thornton, Peltier and Perreault (2004) | Facilitates the attainment of goals related to organisational change and continuous improvement | Organisational learning |
Source: Created by the Researcher
2.5 Delivery of Training Courses
The topic of course delivery is another dominant theme that emerged during the literature search related to vocational training. This subsection will discuss the role of ICT in learning in general and vocational training in particular.
2.5.1 The Role of ICT in Learning and Vocational Training
Extant literature pertaining to the use of information technology tools and devices (ICT) in teaching and learning is considerably robust and substantive. The acronym ICT stands for information and communications technology (Toomey, 2001; Plowman & Stephen, 2005; Totter, Stütz & Grote, 2006; Garrido, Sullivan & Gordon, 2012; Wang & Zhou, 2013). Toomey (2001) defined ICT as technologies that are used for “accessing, gathering, manipulating and presenting or communicating information.” This definition was later expanded by Plowman and Stephen (2005) who enumerated the different types of ICT devices. According to Plowman and Stephen (2005), ICT encompasses the different “audio-visual resources, ‘smart’ toys […] remote control devices, photocopiers, telephones, fax machines, televisions, and computers, […] toys that simulate appliances such as mobile phones, laptops, cash registers, microwave ovens, and barcode readers as well as computers […].” On the other hand, the definition put forth by Wang and Zhou (2013), classified these ITC devices into key types of technology. Thus, they defined ICT as “a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information. These technologies include computers, the internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony.”
Extant literature points to the increasing ubiquity of ICT devices in educational settings, as many researchers have documented the benefits of ICT use in teaching and learning (Wheeler & Winter, 2005; Totter, Stütz & Grote, 2006; Clark et al. 2009; Garrido, Sullivan & Gordon, 2012; Wang & Zhou, 2013). Indeed, ICT use in educational settings is now being regarded as transformative and enabling (Clark et al. 2009).
Within the context of course delivery in vocational training, Podhradsky et al. (2010) highlighted the benefits of using ICT devices in the delivery of vocational training courses. Podhradsky et al. (2010) asserted that modern ICT, infrastructure of converged technologies, and Next Generation Networks (NGN) “offers new possibilities, tools and functionalities which can be effectively used in the processes of e/m learning (electronic and mobile learning, respectively) also in the vocational training of companies and institutions staff [sic]. He maintained that the following e-learning forms are applicable to vocational training: Face-to-face, distance and blended learning.He further explicated that amongst these three e-learning forms, blended learning is the most suitable e-learning method for vocational training, since “the knowledge, new skills, expertise and experience acquired in this way” will help secure “the position of employees in the labour market.” Furthermore, he stressed that it is the new generation of ICT, which features a new set of tools, functionalities, forms and approaches in e/m learning that is considered an effective vocational training platform. This new generation of ICT is an integration of the standard e-leaning platform and the NGN platform. The standard e-leaning platform consists of: (1) the hardware (LMS server, database server, Web server, SMTP server); (2) the software (LMS/LCMS system, OS, database system, software for the development of courses), and (3) internet connection. On the other hand, the NGN platform consists of the standard e-learning platform and the NGN (mobile) architecture.
Wang (2012) buttressed the claims of Podhradsky et al.that e-learning and m-learning are effective in educational settings which include training. However, Wang (2012) added another method of course delivery — mobile cloud learning which is considered by Hirsch and Ng (2011) as a newly- emerging concept of cloud computing that is built on three service models namely: (1) “Infrastructure as a Service – IaaS”; (2) “Platform as a Service- PaaS”; and (3) Software as a Service –SaaS.”
The distinction between mobile learning and mobile cloud learning has been explored by various authors. For instance, Harris (2011) defined mobile learning as “learning with mobile devices.” Wang (2012) on the other hand, defined mobile cloud learning as a “shared pool of learning courses, digital assets, and resources, which instructors and learners can access via computers, laptops, IP-TVs, mobiles, and other portable devices.” Although the principle behind these modes of learning is very similar — facilitation of learning through mobile devices such as laptops and mobile phones, the distinction lies on the amount of available learning resources and on the economics of mobile data exchange (network costs). Wang, Chen and Khan (2014) enumerated the drawbacks associated with mobile learning which include: “high device and network costs, low network transmission rates, and limited education resources available.” Kitanov and Davcev (2012) and Wang (2012) argued that mobile cloud learning addresses these drawbacks by combining the benefits of mobile learning and cloud computing. According to Weber (2011), “greater connectivity between centralized server-side applications and low cost/low processor capacity mobile devices could provide better access, more control, and greater freedom for e-learners.” Table 2.11 summarizes the results of the literature review related to the role of ICT in learning and vocational training.
Table 2.11 Summary of Literature Review Results Related to the Role of ICT in Learning and Vocational Training
| Author(s) | Key Ideas |
| Wheeler & Winter (2005); Totter, Stütz & Grote (2006); Clark et al. (2009); Garrido, Sullivan & Gordon (2012); Wang & Zhou (2013) | Documented the benefits of ICT use in teaching and learning |
| Podhradsky et al. (2010) |
|
| Wang (2012) |
|
| Wang, Chen and Khan (2014) | Drawbacks associated with mobile learning which include: “high device and network costs, low network transmission rates, and limited education resources available” (p. 257) |
| Weber (2011) | Enumerated the advantages of Mobile cloud learning over mobile learning |
Source: Created by the Researcher
2.6 Summary of the Chapter
Results of the literature review related to training highlight the use of bespoke vocational training courses for both of Qatar’s private and public sectors. Extant literature related to training stressed the dominance of the following theoretical frameworks: learning, cognitive, education and educational design theories. To instil quality into the training programme, various authors have documented the utility of Kirkpatrick’s (1959) model in evaluating the success of training programmes using four levels of analysis: (1) level 1 – reaction or feedback of participants; (2) level 2 – learning or learning success of participants; (3) level 3 – behaviour or learning transfer/application on the job; and (4) level 4 – results as measured by business success. Despite criticisms against Kirkpatrick’s (1959) training evaluation model, it has nonetheless received recognition and was later expanded by other researchers to include other metrics.
Results of the literature review related to course content highlight the existence of certain features of an effective course content. These features or characteristics include the following: (1) meets the needs of trainees (Rudestam & Schoenholtz-Read, 2002; Pohl et al., 2005; Chan et al., 2006): (2) keeps pace with the latest technological trends and international product markets (Godfey, 1997); (3) is interesting and engaging to the trainees (Pohl et al., 2005; Nkirina, 2009); (4) is practical as opposed to being theoretical (Pohl et al., 2005; Nkirina, 2009); (5) addresses trainees’ workplace problems (Pohl et al., 2005; Chan et al., 2006); and (6) is flexible and adaptable to labour market changes (Godfey, 1997; Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2012).
Within the context of international business and knowledge management literature, the popularity of cultural differences as an explaining factor gave rise to the development of various cultural frameworks (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; Schwartz, 1992; Triandis, 1994; Trompenaars, 1994). Despite the pragmatism attached to the use of these cultural frameworks, some methodological approaches require more convenient measures in order to effectively study the impacts of cultural differences. For instance, Hofstede’s (1980; 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension framework which consists of five cultural dimensions, and Swartz’ (1992) Seven Dimensions of Culture framework which consists of both individual and cultural level values, is more widely used in the management domain. On the other hand, Triandis’ (1994, 1995) Cultural Syndromes model is more aptly used in studies that focus more on cultural psychology. Finally, Trompenaars’ (1994) Dimensions of Culture framework, which consists of seven fundamental dimensions of national culture and personal pattern variables or value dilemmas, is considered well suited for organizational management and change management.
Thus, within the context of the present study, Trompenaars’ (1994) Dimensions of Culture framework is considered to be the most applicable theoretical framework due to the following reasons: (1) the main thrust of the present study is training which resides within the scope of organisational learning, which is in turn, circumscribed under organisational management; (2) Trompenaars’ (1994) framework primarily deals with the how local learning can be globalized (Bickerstaffe, 2002); and (3) the framework is applied in a methodology that is called ‘cultural due diligence’ which an operational framework “intended to be facilitated by the human resources function” so that cultural differences are made tangible” and their consequences made explicit, making it easy to reconcile them (Bickerstaffe, 2002). With particular reference to reason number two, Trompenaars’ (1994) framework can be applied to Qatar’s vocational training system, particularly in the preparation of courses to ensure that they are culturally- relevant and applicable to the Qatari setting. Hence, within the context of the present study, and as Trompenaars (1994) proposed, the following dimensions of culture apply in knowledge/ knowledge management and in training: (1) universalism versus particularism, (2) individualism versus collectivism, (3) neutral versus emotional, (4) specific versus diffuse, (5) achievement versus ascription, (6) orientation in time, and (7) attitudes towards the environment.
Results of the literature review indicate the paucity in studies that focus on the impacts of cultural differences on knowledge acquisition and training in general. Despite such paucity however, results of the review nonetheless highlight the influence of cultural differences on: (1) group activities (Cox, Lobel & McLeod, 1991); (2) achievement motivation (McClelland, 1961); (3) learning motivation (Niles, 1995; Rogers & Spitzmueller, 2009); and (4) knowledge transfer (Li et al. 2014).
The following dominant themes emerged from the review of literature related to SSM: the SSM concept, the purpose or goal of SSM, the SSM paradigm, the strengths and weaknesses of SSM, and the applications of SSM in learning systems. Results of the literature review related to the SSM concept highlight the existence of numerous working definitions of SSM and the lack of a single, univocal definition. Such diversity in the working definitions of SSM has been attributed to its multipurpose and flexible nature. Most of the denotative meanings of SSM consider it either as a learning process or an experiential learning activity. In addition, results of the literature review suggest the existence of several connotations of SSM which consider it: (1) as a way of analysing; (2) as a problem-solving tool; (3) as a systematic framework; (4) as a process for managing; and (5) as a problem-structuring method.
Results of the literature review related to the purpose or goal of SSM indicate that several practitioners have identified the goals of SSM from a more pragmatic viewpoint that highlighted its utility in facilitating changes to address problematical situations; while others have identified the goals of SSM from a more functional viewpoint that emphasised its utility in evaluating extant systems. Still others have highlighted its applicability in dealing with real-world problems of management, with learning and systems design, and with project management.
Results of the literature review related to the SSM paradigm suggest that SSM follows an interpretive paradigm that lends itself to subjectivity. In addition, results of the review indicate the absence of disagreement as to the interpretive paradigm of SSM, as a significant body of literature has demonstrated that SSM falls within the phenomenological tradition, is linked with qualitative research methods, and has deeply rooted interpretive intrinsic features.
Results of the literature review related to the strengths and weaknesses of SSM suggest that SSM’s interpretive paradigm serves as both its key strength as well as its weakness. This dilemma is attributable to the manner by which the term ‘interpretive’ is understood by practitioners. In addition, another key strength of SSM is its consideration of the social, political and historical aspects of the problem. Other weaknesses identified in the literature point to its tendency to be time consuming and prescriptive in nature, as well as the need to be further complimented by systems dynamics.
Results of the literature review related to the applications of SSM in learning systems highlighted its utility in the following areas: (1) in the audit of the teaching and learning strategies at an undergraduate level; (2) in the evaluation of a current education programme and design of an improved version; (3) in the identification of issues and development of a case study and a teaching module; and (4) in the evaluation of systems performance of a managed learning environment. The reviewed contributions revealed the applicability of SSM in identifying the problematical situation affecting the learning system in question, as well as in the development of performance measures that will be used to evaluate system performance, and in creating conceptual models that are aimed at bringing about changes and improvements to the learning system. Although the reviewed studies lean toward the academic discipline, as opposed to vocational training which is the focus of the present study, both disciplines are nevertheless anchored on one feature – knowledge acquisition. As such, the reviewed studies have the potential to afford sound methodological insight to the present study. However, results of the review highlight the lack in studies that focus on vocational training. Hence, the present study can be considered a novel research undertaking in this respect.
Results of the literature review related to the concepts of systems thinking and the learning organization indicate the lack of a univocal definition of the term ‘systems thinking’. Extant literature ascribes many attributes to it — it is considered a framework (Senge, 1990; Richmond, 1993); a set of skills (Senge, 1990; Richmond, 1993); an approach (Oosterwal, 2010; Ferrat, 2014); a paradigm shift (Senge, 1990; O’Connor & McDermott, 1997; Mingers & White, 2010); or an analytical tool that looks at interrelationships amongst subsystems (Senge, 1990; Richmond, 1993; Mingers & White, 2010; Ferrat, 2014).
In the same vein, results of the review reveal the lack of a univocal definition of the term ‘system dynamics’. Furthermore, there is an academic debate regarding the type of perspective or paradigm that underpins the SD construct. While some authors argue that SD is anchored on a quantitative paradigm (Forrester, 1969; Coyle, 1977; Roberts, 1978; Meadows, 1982; Coyle, 2000; Linder, 2008; Kiani, Mirzamohammadi & Hosseini, 2010; Riccucci, 2010; Wang, Wang and Chen, 2012), others assert that it is based on a qualitative paradigm (Senge, 1993; Pollack, 2007; Besiou, Stapleton & Van Wassenhove, 2010). Nevertheless, despite the debate, SD has been applied in a wide range of discipline such as : policy formulation (Trailer & Garsson, 2005; Sanderson & Gruen, 2006), project management (Godlewski, Lee& Cooper (2012); organisational management (Han et. al., 2009; Besiou, Stapleton & Van Wassenhove, 2012); strategy (Gary et. al., 2008); business management (Oosterwal, 2010); organisational learning (Senge, 1990; Linard & Aretz, 2000; Thornton, Peltier and Perreault, 2004); and in many other disciplines (Sterman, 2000; Kiani, Mirzamohammadi & Hosseini, 2010; Mingers & White, 2010).
Results of the review related to SD also indicate the importance of SD in the ‘learning organisation’ and claimed that SD in this context is considered an effective tool for organisational change and continuous improvement (Senge & Sterman, 1990; Linard & Aretz, 2000; Thornton, Peltier & Perreault, 2004). This stream of research thus highlights the suitability of SD and systems thinking as course offerings in vocational training.
Results of the review related to the delivery of training courses indicate the important role that ICT plays in educational settings that include vocational training. Extant literature highlight the usefulness of ICT, infrastructure of converged technologies, and Next Generation Networks (NGN) (Podhradsky et al., 2010); mobile learning platform (Harris, 2011); and the newly-emerging mobile cloud learning (Weber, 2011; Kitanov & Davcev, 2012; and Wang, 2012) in facilitating learning. Thus, within the context of the present study, vocational courses can be delivered through the following methods: e-learning; m-learning; or mobile cloud learning.
2.7 Conclusions
This chapter discussed the results of the review of literature related to vocational training and its associated evaluation theory. It also discussed the following dominant themes: (1) course content which include the characteristics of effective course content; (2) systems thinking concept and its application and utility in training;(3) cultural differences which include the different frameworks that are focused on cultural differences as well as studies that focus on cultural differences relevant to learning and training; (4) the SSM concept, the purpose or goal of SSM, the SSM paradigm, the strengths and weaknesses of SSM, and the application of SSM in learning systems; (5) systems thinking and systems dynamics; and (6) methods of delivery of training courses which include the role of ICT in learning and vocational training. The succeeding chapter will discuss the results of the methodological evaluation of vocational training in Qatar using SSM.
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the following methodological considerations of the present study, namely: the research philosophy, the research design, and the research procedures. It also discusses the ethical considerations relevant to the present study.
According to Fossey et al. (2002), “sound research requires a systematic and rigorous approach to the design and implementation of the study, the collection and analysis of data, and the interpretation and reporting of findings.” Furthermore, Cohen et al. (2000) assert that the notion of ‘fitness for purpose’ should guide the design of any research undertaking. This means that “the purposes of the research” should determine the methodology and the research design (Cohen et al., 2000). Hence, the overall methodological approach should be adopted in the light of achieving the aims and objectives of the study. It is in this context that this researcher considers SSM as a well-suited methodological approach to use in achieving the aforementioned aim and objectives of the present study, as underpinned by the results of the literature review in the preceding chapter which have highlighted the importance of SSM in analysing problematical situations and subsequently improving them (Kayrooz & Trevitt, 2005; Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres, 2005; Kotiadis & Robinson, 2008; Baskerville, Pries-Heje & Venable, 2009).
The structure of this chapter is as follows: First, a discussion of the research philosophy adopted by the present study which is underpinned on phenomenology and interpretivism, is presented. This is followed by a discussion of the research design, wherein the usefulness of a pluralistic approach in increasing the rigour, breadth and depth of the research will be justified. Then, the research procedures adopted by the present study will be enumerated and subsequently explained one by one. This will be followed by the presentation of the research aims and objectives of the present study and a discussion of the originality of the present study. Next, a discussion of the ethical considerations relevant to the present study and how they were addressed by this researcher will be presented. Finally, the summary of the chapter and the conclusions drawn from the discussion of the aforementioned salient points will be discussed.
3.2 Research Philosophy
The selection of an overall research philosophy is typically made between two dominant alternatives, namely: the positivist philosophy and the phenomenological philosophy (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Lowe, 1997). While the positivist philosophy is circumscribed under the objectivist approach, the phenomenological philosophy on the other hand, falls under the subjectivist approach (Hussey & Hussey, 1997). Easterby-Smith et al. (1991) discussed the different features of each research philosophy (see Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 Various Features of the Positivist and Phenomenological Paradigms
| Positivist Paradigm | Phenomenological
Paradigm |
|
| Basic Beliefs | The world is external and objective. | The world is socially
constructed and subjective. |
| Observer is independent | Observer is part of what
observed. |
|
| Science is value-free | Science is driven by
human interests. |
|
| Researcher should | Focus on facts | Focus on meanings |
| Look for causality and
fundamental laws |
Try to understand what is
happening |
|
| Reduce phenomenon to
simplest elements |
Look at the totality of each
situation |
|
| Formulate hypotheses and
then test them |
Develop ideas through
induction from data |
|
| Preferred methods
include |
Operationalising concepts
so that they can be measured |
Using multiple methods to
establish different views of phenomena |
| Taking large samples | Small samples investigated
in depth or over time |
Sources: Created by the Researcher and Adapted From Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Lowe (1997)
Given the aforementioned research aim and objectives of the present study, this researcher deems the phenomenological paradigm as the appropriate research philosophy to follow since based on the results of the literature review, SSM is heavily anchored on an interpretive paradigm by supporting the self- reflective enquiry of the participants (Brocklesby, 1995). By evaluating the dynamically- changing events of the problematical situation and identifying the specific problems that must be addressed, the participants therein undertake such self- reflective enquiry (Rodriguez-Ulloa and Paucar-Caceres, 2005).
Moreover, the phenomenological paradigm (1) “tends to produce qualitative data” which fits “well with the case study approach”; (2) is associated with rich, subjective data; and (3) is applicable in a natural setting (Hussey & Hussey, 1997). Due to the level of involvement of the participants in the present study, the data gathering process is thus rendered subjective. In addition, the setting of the study, which is considered a natural location is the MOI in Qatar.
According to Brocklesby (1995), SSM is closely linked with phenomenology and interpretivism which serve as epistemological tools that are useful in gaining an understanding of the problem in question. As pointed out by Stowell (2009), SSM is philosophically orientated towards phenomenology. Several researchers have also highlighted that SSM is also philosophically based on hermeneutics (Baskerville, Pries-Heje and Venable, 2009; Alaca, 2011; Poage, Donohoe & Lee, 2011; Ramadhan, Sensuse & Arymurthy, 2012; Staadt, 2012) which deals with Verstehen or the development of interpretive understanding (Boell & Cecez-Kecmanovic, 2010). In the same vein, various researchers have also claimed that SSM follows an interpretive tradition (Checkland, 1981, 1986; Chekland & Scholes, 1990; Wilson, 1984, 2001; Jackson, 1992). In fact, a significant body of literature has attributed the strength of the SSM to its interpretive paradigm (Doyle & Wood, 1991; Flood & Jackson, 1991; Flood & Ulrich, 1991; Crowe, Beeby & Gammack., 1996; Stowell, 2009). As pointed out by Checkland (1990) cited in Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres (2005):
Life world is an ever changing flux of events and ideas and ‘managing’ means reacting to that flux. We perceive, evaluate, take actions (s) which itself becomes part of this flux which lead to next perceptions and evaluations and more actions and so on. It follows that SSM assumes that different actors of the situation will evaluate and perceive this flux differently, creating issues that the manager must cope. Checkland (1990, cited in Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres, 2005).
Furthermore, Pollack (2007) asserts that SSM is oriented towards “an interpretive epistemology, inductive reasoning, and exploratory, qualitative techniques, which emphasise contextual relevance rather than objectivity.” In the same vein, Johnson (2008) argues that SSM regards people as active participants in the creation of the elements of the conceptual model of the system- in-question and is heavily anchored on epistemology. In the final analysis, it becomes clear that SSM adopts epistemological principles which highlight the involvement of interpretivist, phenomenological and hermeneutical claims resulting in the description of the real world in epistemological terms and the separation of the ‘real world’ and ‘systems thinking world’ (Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres, 2005). Therefore, insofar as the collection of data for the present study is concerned, the research philosophy that is deemed well suited for the present study is one that is aligned with the phenomenological, hermeneutical and interpretivist paradigms since SSM is used as the overarching methodological approach in this case.
3.3 Research Design – Use of a Pluralistic Approach
3.3.1 SSM with Case Study and Action Research
Research design, as explained by Hernon and Schwatz (2009), is a complex research consideration that requires researchers to possess a solid understanding of the options available and the choices that need to be made about the various aspects of research design such the research instrument used, the sources of sample, the data collection method and the tools used in analysing collected data. This subsection therefore discusses the aforementioned aspects of the design of the present study.
The present study combined SSM as the guiding methodology with case study and action research. The effectiveness of using SSM in combination with other methodological approaches has been demonstrated in prior studies (Delbridge, 2008; Poage, Donohoe & Lee, 2011; Staadt, 2012; and White, 2012). The present study follows from the methodology and methods adopted by Staadt (2012) who used SSM as the overarching research methodology in conjunction with case study and action research in determining the impacts of negative socio-political factors on the development of a public housing organisation in France. Although the main thrust of the current study which is on public sector training, is different from that of Staadt’s (2012) study, the latter was able to demonstrate the usefulness of systems thinking in suggesting a “purposeful activity model” that is anchored on “constant improvement and collaborative learning for the ongoing intervention” .
Moreover, in order to achieve the aim of the present study, which is to investigate vocational training at the ministries in Qatar, it is required that the training system itself be studied in its natural setting, which is the MOI in Qatar. This further necessitates the use of the case study approach. A case study pertains to “an investigation using multiple sources of evidence to study a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context” (Bonoma, 1985; Yin, 1984; cited in Kaplan & Duchon, 1988). Thus, a case study approach is considered well-suited for the present study because “the starting point and arguably the defining characteristic of the case study approach is its focus on just one instance of the thing that is to be investigated” (Denscombe, 2007). In this study, the main focus of the investigation is the identification of problems besetting the vocational training system offered to Qatar’s public sector employees, so that it may be subsequently improved.
In addition to SSM and case study, action research was also used in the present study. Greenwood and Levin (2007) point out that action research is not to be regarded solely as a research approach, but also as a way of working cooperatively “to enhance liberating social change processes.” Action research (AR) is closely linked with SSM since “SSM itself was developed through an interpretative AR project looking into situations existing in the real world” (Sankaran, Tay & Orr (2009, p. 186). Indeed, important elements of AR serve as “a collaborative process between researchers and people in the situation; a process of critical inquiry”; which “focus on social practice and a deliberate process of reflective learning” (Argyris et al., 1982; cited in Checkland & Holwell, 1998). However, since conventional AR is typically lacking the desired “in-advance intellectual framework of ideas” which negatively affects the rigour of AR, then its integration with SSM is projected to ameliorate such issue of rigour.
3.3.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Strategies
The use of a pluralistic approach has been considered an effective technique to fully address the various research phases involved in any given study (Staadt, 2012). Indeed, there has been a demonstrable interest in other disciplines toward “combining qualitative and quantitative methods to provide a richer, contextual basis for interpreting and validating results” (Cook & Reichardt, 1979; Light & Pillemer,1982; Maxwell, 1986; Meyers, 1981; Van Maanen et. al, 1982; 1983a; cited in Kaplan & Duchon, 1988). These methods need not be regarded as mutually exclusive since “it is possible to integrate quantitative and qualitative methods” (Maxwell, et. al, 1986; cited in Kaplan & Duchon, 1988).
Researchers refer to such triangulation of research methods as a ‘mixed-methods’ approach. Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, and Turner (2007) define mixed-methods research as an integration of “elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches (e.g., use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques) for the purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration.” Klingner and Boardman (2011) elucidate that “mixed-methods research can help to establish cross-context patterns of regularity and determine unique within-site variables.” Silverman (2006) suggests the use of a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods since it “increases the effectiveness of addressing the research questions.” Additionally, Greene (2007) argues that the use of mixed-methods further strengthens the rigour of the research process. Riccucci, (2010) explains that the mixed- methods approach is well suited for applied fields since it provides flexibility in resolving practical, real-world problems. Mixed- methods, thus, has been deemed well suited for the present study since it is focused on the exploration of the real-world problems affecting public sector training in Qatar which is essentially a practical enquiry in itself.
According to De Vaus (2002),“qualitative methods are often regarded as providing rich data about real- life people and situations and being more able to make sense of behaviour and to understand behaviour within its wider context.” Furthermore, Denscombe (2007) maintain that qualitative data are closely linked with “strategies of research such as ethnography, phenomenology and grounded theory, and with research methods such as interviews, documents and observation.” The use of qualitative research in the present study is hence justified by the use of the SSM as the guiding methodology in combination with case study and action research. The present study used qualitative techniques to fulfil the various stages of the SSM and which consisted of the use of researcher notes for the participant – observation and semi-structured interviews.
In addition, the present study also used a quantitative research approach in collecting and analysing data from a five -point Likert -type scale type of survey questionnaire. In addition to semi-structured interviews, survey questionnaire was used for the present study because as Bell (2010) asserts, it affords a fast yet economic way of determining information from a relatively large sample. In terms of the analysis of statistical data, Likert scales “fall within the ordinal level of measurement” which require the use “of the median or the mode as the measure of central tendency” and of non-parametric tests such as chi squared, Spearman’s Rho, or the Mann–Whitney U-test since parametric tests require data of interval or ratio level” (Jamieson, 2004) – thereby necessitating the use of a quantitative approach. Figure 3.1 below summarizes the research methodology of the present study.
Figure 3.1 Research Methodology of the Present Study
Source: Created by the Researcher
3.4 Research Methods
This section discusses the research methods employed in the present study. This covers the following topics, namely: (1) data collection methods; (2) study sample; (4) data analysis; and (5) the research procedures circumscribed under the SSM which is the guiding methodology of the present study.
3.4.1 Data Collection Methods
The methodological evaluation of public sector training in Qatar was comprised by two stages, namely: (1) preparatory research; and (2) start of SSM enquiry, which consisted of identifying the problem and the formulation of root definitions.
- Preparatory Research
The preparatory research stage consisted of an initial enquiry of the problems related to the training system. The main data collection methods used for this stage consisted of participant-observation, note-taking, evaluation of internal documents and an informal interview with MOI employees who have undergone vocational training. The preparatory research stage started in April 2011 when this researcher started with the formal research for this thesis. Since this researcher has been working for many years in the MOI of Qatar — initially as a civil servant in a training role, and currently as the Director of Training — profound insight into the issues related to the training of civil service personnel taking up low-grade administrative training courses and of police officers taking up specialist technical courses were obtained right from the start. This researcher adopted the participant –observation approach to identify these issues in conjunction with the use of internal data gathered during the start of the research process. Thus, this researcher essentially explored the weaknesses of the MOI’s training system through participant-observation accompanied by note-taking.
- Start of the SSM Enquiry
This stage involved the identification of the problems affecting Qatar’s public sector training and the formulation of root definitions. The main data collection methods employed in this stage consisted of the administration of the following research instruments, namely: (1) a Likert rating scale type of questionnaire; and (2) semi-structured interviews.
- Likert Rating Scale Type of Questionnaire
A total of two survey questionnaires were administered to both civilian and police trainees of the MOI. The survey questionnaire was originally developed in English then translated into Arabic and then back-translated into English (Brislin, 1970). The first questionnaire which was administered in July 2012 consisted of two parts. The first part included four closed –ended, multiple choice questions that were related to the demographic information of study participants (i.e. gender, age, ethnicity and highest educational attainment). The second part of the survey questionnaire explored the participants’ course expectations and was administered prior to the start of the vocational training course that the participants were enrolled in. It consisted of 20 items that revolved around the following theme, namely: (a) expectations on learning (items 1-5); expectation on the transfer of skills acquired during training (item no. 6); (b) expectations on the ability and skills of the speaker or trainer (item nos. 7-11); (c) expectations about the training materials and modules (item nos. 12-15); and (d) expectations about the training environment (item nos. 16-20). For the second part of the questionnaire, study participants were requested to indicate their responses to the items in the questionnaire based on the following five-point rating scale: (1) Very Unimportant; (2) Unimportant; (3) Neutral; (4) Important; and (5) Very Important.
The second questionnaire was administered after the participants had finished their respective training courses. It consisted of 20 items that revolved around the meeting of the above-mentioned expectations. For the third part of the questionnaire, study participants were requested to indicate their responses to the items in the questionnaire based on the following five-point rating scale: (1) Strongly Disagree; (2) Disagree; (3) Neutral; (4) Agree; and (5) Strongly Agree. To ensure the reliability of the items in the questionnaire, a Cronbach’s Alpha analysis was conducted. To ensure the accuracy of the items in the questionnaire, pilot- testing was also conducted prior to the administration of the survey.
- Semi-structured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews were conducted at the same time, to validate and further explore the results of the survey questionnaire. The interviewees were requested to respond to a total of 10 questions. Four open-ended questions explored the manner by which training expectations were not adequately met, as well as the key problems of public sector training in Qatar; while six open-ended questions revolved around the CATWOE mnemonic for the SSM root definitions.
Another round of semi-structured interviews was conducted in March 2015 after the offering of Systems Thinking and Systems Dynamics as the new vocational training courses. The interviews revolved around a total of six questions that were asked to eight high- ranking officers in the Qatar Police Training Institute who attended the training. The interview questions were as follows: (1) Did the course challenge you? Please state how; (2) Has the course changed the way that you think? If so state how you thought before and how you think afterwards; (3) Did the course relate to Qatar and its Culture? (4) What did you learn from the course? (5) Are such courses useful? Please state why; and (6) Did the course meet your expectations?
Overall, a case study approach was adopted for both stages of the methodological evaluation of public sector training in Qatar. In particular, a single, holistic case study design with embedded units using cross-case analysis was adopted for the above-mentioned research stages. Eisenhardt and Graebner (2007) point out that a single, holistic case study design is a powerful research design since it enables the setting of enquiry at sub-units that are circumscribed within a larger case. Within the context of the present study, the sub-units were the questionnaire respondents and interviewees comprised by civilian and police trainees, while the larger case is the training system itself.
3.4.2 Study Sample
Purposive sampling technique was chosen by this researcher in the selection of study participants because this sampling technique is a type of non-probability sampling deemed well suited for investigating “a certain cultural domain with knowledgeable experts within” (Tongco, 2007). Since “the choice of the purposive sample is fundamental to the quality of data gathered”, then it follows that “reliability and competence of the informant must be ensured”. To ensure that the selected participants would be reliable and competent within the context of the present study, the following selection criteria were established by this researcher: (1) participants should be about to take a vocational training course within two months of the receipt of the questionnaire; and (2) participants should belong to either the civilian or the police sectors of the MOI. The second criterion was necessary since the MOI’s training department is responsible for the conduct of public sector training and the civilian or the police sectors of the MOI are thus considered to have first-hand knowledge of the activities relevant to the training system of the MOI.
The sampling frame consisted of a complete, up-to-date list of all civilian and police employees belonging to the Qatari public sector who carried out training in 2011. A cohort of 150 trainees was identified. In particular, the study sample consisted of 117 civilian employees (78% of the sample population) and 33 police officers (22% of the sample population). The civilian participants took courses with moderate to high social content, while the non-civilian (police) participants took courses having a social rather than a purely technical content (for example, relations with the public). This researcher administered the survey questionnaire to the 150 study participants. These same participants received the post-test questionnaire within a week of finishing their training.
For the first set of semi-structured interviews, the study sample consisted of 6 civilian employees and 4 police officers. Interview participants were selected from the sample who participated in the survey and who indicated that their training expectations were not met. The number of interviewees was limited to 10 so that the researcher can devote sufficient time for each interview session and in consideration of his busy schedule. For the second set of semi-structured interviews, the study sample consisted of eight high- ranking officers in the Qatar Police Training Institute who attended the training on Systems Thinking and Systems Dynamics.
3.4.3 Data Analysis
The methods adopted in the analysis of data gathered for the present study consists of the following: (1) statistical analysis of the survey questionnaire; and (2) content analysis for the semi-structured interviews.
- Statistical Analysis of the Survey Questionnaire
Prior to the analysis, collected data were organised and coded. Data analysis included pre-analysis checks to screen for data entry errors. Then initial frequency distribution and descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests were performed on the collected data. For the Likert-scale items, the median was obtained.
- Content Analysis for the Semi-Structured Interviews
Data collected from the semi-structured interviews were analysed using Atlas, which is software for content analysis. This researcher systematically applied a pre-existing set of codes to the data prior to the use of Atlas. Content analysis is “a powerful research tool to determine, from the content of a message, sound inferences concerning the attitude of the speaker or writer” (Wilkinson & Birmingham, 2003). It is considered “an approach to the analysis of documents and texts (which may be printed or visual), that seeks to quantify content in terms of predetermined categories and in a systematic and replicable manner” (Pope, Mays & Popay, 2007). Content analysis involves “identifying, quantifying, and analyzing specific words, phrases, concepts, or other observable semantic data in a text or body of texts with the aim of uncovering some underlying thematic or rhetorical pattern running through these texts” (Huckin, 2004).
3.5 Research Procedures Adopted for the Present Study
Using SSM as the overarching methodological approach, the research procedures employed in the present study can be grouped into the following key stages, namely: (1) stage 1 which involves the identification of the problematical situation relevant to vocational training in Qatar’s public sector; (2) stage 2 which involves the expression of the problem in rich pictures;(3) stage 3 which involves the formulation of the root definitions relevant to the aforementioned vocational training system; (4) stage 4 which involves the construction of conceptual models; (5) stage 5 which involves the evaluation of the models; (6) stage 6 which involves the identification of desirable changes; and (7) stage 7 which involves taking action in order to bring about improvement by implementing the model and fixing the identified problem . These key stages were adopted sequentially such that the analysis of the results obtained for each stage also are presented in the same manner — that is, in sequence also. In this case, the results of the data analysis for the first stage were used for the preparation of the succeeding research stage. Such research approach supports the view of Miles and Huberman (1994) which highlights the iterative nature of the qualitative research process. According to Miles and Huberman (1994), analysis in qualitative research follows an iterative process wherein analysis is undertaken before, during and after data have been collected.
With respect to the methodological evaluation of public sector training in Qatar, which is the focus of this chapter, the first stage of the research procedures consisted of the preparatory stage which was conducted in April 2011, and the formal start of the SSM enquiry that started on July 2012 and lasted until May 2013. The analysis of the first stage was based on the following: (1) the preparatory stage, wherein data were gathered from participant-observation and internal documents; (2) the formal start of the SSM enquiry, wherein data were collected from a pre-test survey questionnaire focussing on participants’ expectations on the training course they were enrolled in, a post-test survey questionnaire focussing on the participants’ experiences after they have finished the course, and a semi-structured interview which further dissected the findings generated through the questionnaires. Hence, findings generated from the administration of the questionnaires served as the basis for the questions of the semi-structured interviews. The following types of questions were elaborated, namely: (1) questions relevant to the participants’ perception of the problematical situations affecting vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector: (2) questions about the rich picture and primary activity systems involved in vocational training; and (3) specific questions relevant to the findings from the analysis of data collected from participant-observation and internal documents. Stage 3 involved the formulation of root definitions based on the CATWOE mnemonic using data from semi-structured interviews conducted in June 2013. This was followed by Stage 4, which involved the construction of the conceptual model based on the results of stages 1-3. Next, the conceptual models were evaluated using a set of performance measures. This was followed by the identification of desirable changes. Finally, the desirable changes were implemented by taking action. Table 3.2 below presents the Gantt chart of research activities involved in the methodological evaluation of public sector training in Qatar.
Table 3.2 Gantt Chart of Research Activities Involved in the Methodological Evaluation of Public Sector Training in Qatar
| Research Procedures Involved in the Methodological Evaluation of Public Sector Training in Qatar | Feb.
2011 |
June 2012 | July
2012 |
May 2013 | June 2013 | January 2014 | March 2015
|
April
2015 |
May 2015 |
| Stage 1:
Identification of the problematical situation Participant-observation and Secondary Research |
|
|
|||||||
| Stage 2:
Formal start of the SSM enquiry Survey Questionnaires Semi- Structured Interviews Content Analysis Creation of Rich Picture |
|
||||||||
| Stage 3:
Formulation of Root Definitions using the CATWOE Mnemonic
Semi- Structured Interviews Content Analysis |
 |
||||||||
| Stage 4:
Construction of the Conceptual Model |
 |
||||||||
| Stage 5:
Evaluation of the conceptual models |
 |
||||||||
| Stage 6:
Identification of desirable changes |
 |
||||||||
| Stage 7:
Implementation of desirable changes |
|
Source: Created by the Researcher
3.6 Research Aims and Objectives
This subsection will discuss the research aims and objectives of the present study. It will also present a justification of the originality of the present study.
3.6.1 Research Aim
To fulfil the adaptive demands of a dynamically-changing environment, organisations take advantage of learning, training and other relevant developmental activities and use them as key strategies for both employee and organisational growth (Bates, 2001). Organisations are required to possess “the processes, the systems, and the culture to facilitate effective knowledge sharing” (Gary, 1996; cited in Harvard Business School, 2007).
Indeed, extant literature on the ‘learning organisation’ highlights the increasing interest of organisations to pursue learning, as evidenced by their rising investments in training (Bates, 2001). In addition, the direct relationship between “an organisation’s ability to learn” and the extent by which employees are willing to “learn, change and succeed at work” has been documented in knowledge management literature. Hence, there is an urgent requirement for HRD managers and practitioners to understand both individual and organisational factors that influence training participation (Bates, 2001).
Together with the problem of an ageing workforce, the public sector has been beset with different challenges that include talent shortages, restructuring problems, and cost-effective service delivery (McCracken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). As a result, more business like approaches have been adopted within the context of organisational management due to the premium placed on cost efficiency (Argyriades, 2010). Moreover, the global economic crisis marked by substantial budget cuts in the US, UK and Canada further fortified such trend towards public management that is anchored on efficiency and effectiveness (Nygaard & Bramming, 2008; cited in McCracken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). However, research findings have highlighted the inadequacy of trained public sector professionals who can operate in such complex scenario (McCracken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). Hence, as pointed out by Coxhead et al. (2010), “it is not surprising that government departments and other public service organisations are constantly looking for ways to develop the skills of their managers and future leaders.”
Similarly, in Qatar, despite the recognition of the need for a highly-skilled and capable workforce for its public sector, the highest proportion of public sector employees remains largely comprised by unskilled and semiskilled workers (Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2011). According to the report, “this skill mismatch, along with other features of public sector employment (particularly the social benefits), has reduced incentives for Qataris to improve their skills and education.” The report further elucidates that:
The lack of adequate skills in the labour force is a challenge that must be addressed through skills upgrading for Qataris designed and implemented primarily through public and private institutions. Because not all Qataris will pursue an academic education, they need opportunities to develop technical skills through vocational training. The share of enrolment in technical education and vocational training at the secondary level is below that of international benchmarks.
Indeed, it was highlighted in its National Development Strategy for 2011-2016 that investments in technical education and vocational training (TEVT) remains inadequate, thereby requiring the creation of basic infrastructure for future course offerings that includes “a coordination mechanism to maintain the quality of institutions and programmes, ensure that course offerings meet labour market needs and student demand, and establish clear links between TEVT courses and labour market requirements” (Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2011).
Thus, a key component of Qatar’s National Development Strategy for 2011-2016 related to public sector training is circumscribed under the government’s plan to “upgrade skills in the public sector to improve institutions and administration for the country” by enhancing long-term training opportunities for public sector employees through the provision of more vocational training programmes (Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2011). However, as pointed out in the literature review, public sector training in Qatar involves the use of bespoke training courses that are heavily anchored on Western concepts. Furthermore, the IAD is the only training institution mandated by the Qatari government to provide public sector training. Thus, the premium placed on the vocational training of Qatar’s public sector coupled by the challenges faced by its training system serve as the impetus for the examination of the current state of the country’s vocational training system.
To summarise, this research aims is complete a thorough analysis of the present training in Qatar and produce verifiable recommendations for the Ministry of Interior.
3.6.2 Research Objectives
To achieve the aforementioned research aim, the present study has the following set research objectives:
(1) to conduct a relevant literature review;
(2) to conduct a methodological evaluation of public sector training in Qatar using Soft Systems Methodology (SSM);
(3) to implement the results of the Soft Systems Analysis;
(4) to evaluate results and
(5) to produce recommendations for Qatar related to its public sector’s vocational training system.
It was decided to choose SSM as the overarching approach for the methodological evaluation of public sector training because of its proven record, its usefulness in addressing real-world problems of management, its utility for learning and systems design (Checkland & Scholes, 1990; Reid et al., 1999; Hindle, 2011; Hardman and Paucar-Caceres; 2011) and its evaluatory nature which helps improve problematical situations by assessing the current situation and subsequently bring about changes. Within the context of the present study, SSM is considered a methodological tool that can help evaluate the current state of the Qatar’s vocational training system for its public sector and subsequently bring about the desired changes. In addition, there is a need to devise a set of performance measures for assessing the quality of a course offered by one of the ministries in Qatar in order to objectively ascertain the quality of vocational training that the said ministry provides. These performance measures will then be used in evaluating the quality of a vocational training course offered by the chosen ministry through the design and subsequent administration of a survey questionnaire. Based on the findings generated from the survey questionnaire, new courses will be delivered across the ministries in Qatar and will then be evaluated. Finally, an investigation into new delivery methods will be carried out. The completion of these objectives will allow recommendations to be developed which will set the priorities and define the strategy and direction of Qatar’s vocational training system for its public sector.
3.6.3 Originality
The present study is a novel research undertaking considering that most studies related to vocational training were conducted in Western settings (McCracken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). In addition, findings from the review of related literature highlight the dearth or paucity in studies that are relevant to the utility of SSM in training systems as only a few studies focused on the applications of SSM in academic learning environments, as opposed to vocational learning environments. Such studies aimed at testing the effectiveness and utility of SSM in the following areas: (1) the teaching and learning process at undergraduate education (Patel, 1995); (2) education programme design (Tsoi, 2001); (3) module development (Hindle, 2011); and (4) managed learning environment (Hardman & Paucar-Caceres, 2011). Whilst the abovementioned studies clearly recognized the utility of SSM in problem-structuring and in building conceptual models to improve the system in question, they were still within the scope of academic teaching and learning. Hence, there is a lack in studies that are germane to SSM applications that focus on training systems in general, and on vocational training, in particular. Furthermore, findings from the present study is envisaged to inform the formulation of comprehensive recommendations for Qatar, as well as the production of “an operational and management model for the education and development of teachers for the technical education and vocational training system” (Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2011).
The new courses that will be developed will take into consideration cultural differences and the results of the SSM. As these courses are new, they will involve detailed research and study by the researcher and will be original both in content and in context. The investigation into new pedagogical delivery methods will also be original for Qatar which is still using delivery methods from the last century. The recommendations will therefore be a creative and constructive way ahead for the improvement of the vocational training programme in Qatar’s public sector.
3.7 Ethical Considerations
This researcher made sure that ethical considerations related to this study which are centred on the issues of confidentiality and data protection, and on the involvement of human participants, were fully addressed. This researcher ensured the protection of participants from any form of physical or psychological danger during their participation in the study. In addition, this researcher ensured that the collection, storage, disclosure, and use of research data complied with the Data Protection Act of 1998, “which imposes certain obligations relevant to fair and lawful data collection and processing” (Matwyshyn, 2009). Fair and lawful data collection and processing require making certain that information or data obtained from study participants are fairly and lawfully used, and specifically for stated purposes only (Gov.UK, undated). This researcher therefore informed the participants about the nature and purpose of this study through an informed written consent and a covering letter which were provided to them. Moreover, study participants were informed about their right to refuse to participate or to withdraw from the study at any time they wish. The study participants were also debriefed after the administration of the survey questionnaires and after the semi-structured interviews. Furthermore, this researcher assured the participants that a copy of the results of the study will be provided to them if they would so require.
To further address the issues of confidentiality and data protection, after the administration of the survey questionnaires and the conduct of the semi-structured interviews, no further contact with the study participants was made in order to avoid intrusion and other ethical problems related to privacy from arising. The confidentiality and anonymity of all participants were upheld throughout the research study.
3.8 Summary of the Chapter
The choice of SSM as the conceptual framework of the present study is underpinned on the results of the literature review, which highlight the usefulness of SSM in evaluating learning environments and in designing education programmes. In the same vein, the choice of SSM as the conceptual framework is anchored on the overarching aim of the present study which is to evaluate the vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector. In fact, SSM’s evaluatory nature has been documented in prior literature. In particular, the conceptual framework of the present study is based on the seven-stage version of the SSM which is closely aligned with the Mode1 type of enquiry which is well-suited for undertaking research studies and is more accessible to novice researchers.
The research philosophy followed in the present is one that is hinged on phenomenology and interpretivism which serve as epistemological tools in understanding the problems of the vocational training system in the public sector of Qatar. Indeed, extant literature has documented that SSM adopts epistemological principles involving interpretivist, phenomenological and hermeneutical claims. The present study used a pluralistic approach in its research design, wherein SSM is combined with a case study approach and action research. In this case, SSM is considered as the overarching methodological approach or the guiding methodological framework. The use of the case study approach is justified by its orientation with the aims of the present study, which is to investigate vocational training at the ministries in Qatar, thereby requiring that the training system itself be studied in its natural setting –the hallmark of the case study approach. In addition, action research was also used in the present study. Important elements of action research are considered to be actively involved in the process of critical inquiry whereby action research served as the collaborative process between the study participants and this researcher.
The present study used a combination of qualitative and quantitative research approaches – which is also called the ‘mixed-methods’ approach. The advantages of using a ‘mixed-methods’ approach have been highlighted in prior literature. For instance, a ‘mixed-methods’ approach increases the breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration (Johnson, Onwuegbuzie & Turner, 2007); as well as the effectiveness of addressing the research questions (Silverman, 2006). Moreover, a ‘mixed-methods’ approach fortifies the rigour of the research process (Greene, 2007), and is well-suited in applied fields (Riccucci, 2010). The use of the qualitative approach in the present study is underpinned on the use of the SSM as the guiding methodology. The qualitative approach is embodied in the semi-structured interviews conducted by this researcher with 10 study participants. On the other hand, the quantitative research approach is embodied in the use of statistical tools in analysing the results of the Likert -type scale type of survey questionnaires (i.e. the pre-test and post-test).
Due to the paucity in studies that are germane to vocational training systems especially within the context of the Arab region, as well as on the effectiveness and utility of SSM in evaluating vocational training systems, the present study is thus considered a novel research undertaking.
3.9 Conclusions
This chapter discussed the following methodological considerations of the present study, namely: the conceptual framework, the research philosophy, the research design, and the research procedures adopted by the present study. In addition, this chapter presented a brief discussion of the research aim and research objectives of the present study, as well as a justification of its originality. This chapter also discussed the ethical considerations relevant to the present study as well as the results of the methodological evaluation of the training in Qatar using SSM. The succeeding chapter will present the research aims of the present study.
Chapter 4 Soft System Analysis of the Problem
4.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the results of the soft system analysis of the problem related to public sector training in Qatar. In Chapter 3, a detailed description of the research methodology employed has been presented. In particular, it focused on the use of the Soft Systems methodology first formulated by Checkland and Scoles (1990). This chapter will present the results of the said methodological evaluation of public sector training in Qatar using SSM.
The first stage of SSM (stage 1) was to gain a deeper understanding of the problem which involves problem unstructuring or identification and a full description is given. The chapter will subsequently present the remaining stages of the SSM enquiry, namely: (a) stage 2 or problem situation expressed, which involves the expression of the problem in a rich picture; (b) stage 3 or problem-oriented root definitions, which involves the formulation of root definitions describing the purpose of the different systems or the processes of the system-in-question. There are developed from the analysis of data gathered and with the use of the CATWOE mnemonic. The data gathered is from interviews, internal documents, and participant-observation as they relate to the literature review Performance measures are also presented; (c) stage 4 or creation of conceptual models, which must be designed with the primary purpose of identifying the minimum required activities for the system-in-question..; (d) stage 5 or comparison between the conceptual model and the real world, which involves comparing the conceptual model with the real world; and (e) stage 6 or identification of desirable changes, which involves making modifications to the conceptual model in order to incorporate the interests of the actors. These stages are shown pictorially in figure 4.1 below.
4.2 Stage One of SSM – The Methodological Evaluation
This section discusses the key findings resulting from the analysis of data obtained from the questionnaire and the semi-structured interviews. The choice of statistical analysis follows from the objectives of the study. SPSS version 20 was used
Figure 4.1. Stages in the SSM
Source Images for SSM (google)
to input and analyse the data. The data analysis included pre-analysis checks to screen for data entry errors. Next, initial frequency distribution and descriptive statistics were computed to ascertain the perception of participants regarding their course expectations (pre-test) and whether or not these expectations were realised after finishing their respective vocational training courses (post-test). Following score measurement proposed by Jamieson (2004) for Likert scale items, the median as the measure of central tendency was obtained for each item.
4.2.1 Results of the Analysis of Data Obtained from the Questionnaire
4.2.1.1 Demographics of the Respondents/ Participants
The pre-test consisted of the questionnaire discussed in section 3.4. The first part was designed to determine the gender, age and educational attainment of the participants. Out of the 150 survey questionnaires that were distributed to participants on July 2012, a total of 142 questionnaires were accomplished and returned by the participants — thereby generating a response rate of 94.67 percent. Out of the 142 questionnaires analysed, 110 were from men (n=110; 77.5%), while 32 were from women (n= 32; 22.5%) The majority of the participants have ages ranging from 31-40 years old (n= 69; 48.9%), and most obtained a bachelor’s degree (n=126; 88.7%)
4.2.1.2 Pre-Test Results
The survey was designed to elicit the views on existing vocational training in the public service sector of Qatar. It asked 20 questions about the following: (a) expectations on learning (items 1-5); expectations on the transfer of skills acquired during training (item no. 6); (b) expectations on the ability and skills of the speaker or trainer (item nos. 7-11); (c) expectations about the training materials and modules (item nos. 12-15); and (d) expectations about the training environment (item nos. 16-20).
Participants considered these expectations to be ‘very important’: (a) ‘To learn the basics on the topic’ (n=142; 100%); (b) ‘To learn advanced concepts on the topic’(n=105; 73.9%,); (c) ‘To be able to complete the course’ (n=142; 100%,); (d) ‘To be able to apply the skills I’ve learned in training’ (n=142; 100%,); (e) ‘To develop the skills in using the topics learned in everyday activities’ (n=135; 95.1%); (f) ‘The speaker is able to share his/her knowledge well’ (n=125; 88%,); (g) ‘The speaker is able to prepare his/her materials to make it easier to understand the concepts’ (n= 13; 93%); (h) ‘The speaker is knowledgeable in the topic’ (n=142; 100%,); (i) ‘The speaker provides sufficient examples to help participants understand the concept’ (n=142; 100%,); (j) ‘The training is developed appropriately to match the needs of the participants’ (n= 138; 97.2%); (k) ‘The training materials provided are interesting’ (n= 137; 96.5%); (j) ‘The training materials provided can be used independently’(n= 106; 74.6%); (l) ‘The training materials used can be used to share knowledge to colleagues’ (n=106; 74.6%); (m) ‘The training environment is conducive to learning’ (n=142; 100%); (n) ‘The training environment is open to sharing of experiences of participants’ (n=137; 96.5%,); (o) ‘There is sufficient equipment to encourage sharing among participants’ (n= 106, 74.6%); (p) ‘The training environment is helpful in encouraging participants to take notes, etc.’ (n=133, 93.7%).
Study participants considered these expectations to be less ‘important’: (a) ‘To be able to teach my colleagues the skills I’ve learned from the training’ (n=83; 58.5%,); and (b) ‘The speaker accommodates the questions of participants’ (n=76; 53.5%). Table 4.1 below presents the summary of the results of statistics of the pre-test Likert- scale questions, showing the median obtained for each item.
Table 4.1 Summary of the Results of Statistics of the Pre-Test Likert- Scale Questions
| Pre-Test / Expectations | Median |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
4.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
4.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
|
5.00 |
4.2.1.3 Post-Test Results
The second questionnaire which served as a post test asked 20 questions about the actual experiences of the participants when they took their respective vocational training courses. The survey items revolved around the same considerations covered in the pre-test that examined the participants’ expectations. However, in the post-test, the survey was designed to test whether or not the training courses were able to meet the participants’ expectations using the following rating scales: (1) Strongly Disagree; (2) Disagree; (3) Neutral; (4) Agree; and (5) Strongly Agree.
Majority of the responses generated a median of 1.00 for 6 items in the questionnaire, 2.00 for 6 items in the questionnaire, and 5.00 for 6 items as well, which means that the participants ‘strongly disagreed’, ‘disagreed’ and ‘strongly agreed’ respectively to the aforementioned items. In particular, the participants ‘strongly disagreed’ to the following statements: (a) ‘The speaker was able to prepare his/her materials to make it easier to understand the concepts’ (n= 79; 55.6%); (b) ‘The training was developed appropriately to match the needs of the participants’ (n=106; 74.6%); (c) ‘The training materials provided were interesting’ (n= 104; 73.2%); (d) “The training materials provided can be used independently” (n= 100; 70.40%); (e) ‘The training materials used can be used to share knowledge to colleagues’ (n= 100; 70.40%); and (f) ‘There was sufficient equipment to encourage sharing among participants’ (n= 100; 70.40%).
Similarly, participants ‘disagreed’ to these statements: (a)‘I was able to learn the basics on the topic’ (n= 71; 50%) ; (b) ‘I was able to learn advanced concepts on the topic’ (n= 64; 45.1%,); (c) ‘I will be able to apply the skills I’ve learned in training’ (n= 92; 64.8%); (d) ‘I developed the skills in using the topics learned in everyday activities’(n=65; 45.8%); (e) ‘I will be able to teach my colleagues the skills I’ve learned from the training’ (n= 113; 79.6%); (f) ‘The speaker provided sufficient examples to help participants understand the concept’ (n= 88; 62%).
On the other hand, participants ‘strongly agreed’ to the following statements: (a) ‘the speaker accommodated the questions of participants’ (n=103; 72.5%); (b) ‘the speaker was knowledgeable in the topic’ (n=125; 88%); (c) ‘the training environment was conducive to learning’ (n=135; 95.1%); (d) ‘the training environment was open to the sharing of experiences of participants’(n=131; 92.3%) ; (e)’the training environment was comfortable for participants’ (n= 131; 92.3%) and (f) ‘the training environment was helpful in encouraging participants to take notes, etc.’ (n= 124; 87.3%). Table 4.2 below presents the summary of the results of statistics of the post-test Likert- scale questions, showing the median obtained for each item.
Table 4.2 Summary of the Results of Statistics of the Post -Test Likert- Scale Questions
| Post-Test Items | Median | |
|
2.00 | |
|
2.00 | |
|
5.00 | |
|
2.00 | |
|
2.00 | |
|
2.00 | |
|
4.00 | |
|
1.00 | |
|
5.00 | |
|
5.00 | |
|
2.00 | |
|
1.00 | |
|
1.00 | |
|
1.00 | |
|
1.00 | |
|
5.00 | |
|
5.00 | |
|
1.00 | |
|
5.00 | |
|
5.00 | |
4.2.1.4 Key Findings from the Questionnaire
Over all, results of the data analysis obtained from the pre-test survey suggest that the participants have high expectations regarding the respective vocational training courses that they were enrolled in. The participants considered these expectations either as ‘very important’ or ‘important’. In particular, majority of the respondents considered 18 of their expectations on the vocational training course that they are enrolled in as ‘very important’, with each item generating a median of 5.00. These expectations are centred on: learning the basics and advanced concepts of the course; completing the course; applying the skills learnt from the course; fully developing the skills and using them in their everyday tasks; the ability of the speaker in sharing their knowledge, in preparing their materials and in providing sufficient examples to help participants understand the concepts; the suitability of the course in addressing the training needs of the participants; and the conduciveness of the environment for learning. Two items on expectations obtained a median of 4.00, which means that most of the respondents considered these two expectations ‘important’. These items were centred on skills transfer and on the ability of the speaker to accommodate the questions of the trainees.
Results of the post-test survey indicate that the abovementioned participant expectations were not met at the end of the respective vocational training courses. With specific reference to the manner by which training was delivered, study participants perceived that the training course was not developed appropriately to match the needs of the participants. Moreover, study participants perceived that: (1) training materials provided cannot be used independently; (2) training materials cannot be used to share knowledge learnt with their colleagues; (3) training equipment was not sufficient to encourage sharing of knowledge amongst other trainees; and (4) the speaker failed to provide sufficient examples to help participants understand the concepts.
As a result of the perceived failure of the vocational training to meet the participants’ expectations, majority of the participants felt that: (1) they were not able to learn the basics on the topic; (2) they were not able to learn advanced concepts on the topic; (3) they were not able to able to apply the skills they learnt in training; (4) they failed to develop the skills in using the topics learnt in everyday activities; and (5) they were not able to teach their colleagues the skills they learned from the training.
Nevertheless, despite the perceived failure of the vocational training system to meet the expectations of the participants, the majority of the participants felt that the speaker was knowledgeable in the topics and that the speaker effectively accommodated their questions. Moreover, the participants viewed the training environment to be conducive to learning and the sharing of their learning experiences. Thus, the problem of the vocational training system as perceived by the participants is rooted on the mismatch between the training needs of the participants and the vocational training courses, and on the delivery of these training courses. These findings were further buttressed by the findings from the semi-structured interviews, which indicate that course content and course delivery are the key problems related to the provision of vocational training to Qatar’s public sector. Moreover, circumscribed under the problematical issue of course content is the cultural disconnect between the Western-based concepts of the training courses and the context of the Qatari workplace. In such case, study participants felt that it was difficult for them to apply the Western-based concepts to the Qatari setting due to cultural differences.
4.2.2 Results of the Analysis of Data Obtained from the first set of Semi-Structured Interviews
All of the 10 employees of the MOI whom this researcher requested to participate in the semi-structured interviews granted the request and participated, thereby generating a response rate of 100 percent. Transcripts of the semi-structured interviews were coded and content-analyzed using Atlas Build 5 which is a qualitative analysis software. The consent form, interview schedule, interview transcripts and results of the content analysis are presented in the appendices.
Results of the semi-structured interviews indicate that the problems of public sector training in Qatar involve the following issues, namely: (1) that the vocational training courses did not match the needs of the participants; (2) that the concepts taught were grounded on Western thinking, and were therefore not applicable in the context of the Qatari experience; and (3) that training equipment was traditional and outdated. As a result of these problems, study participants felt that they failed to acquire the skills that the courses were intended to help develop in them. Overall, results of the analysis of data obtained from the semi-structured interviews buttress the results of the survey (i.e. the pre-test and the post-test questionnaires), wherein the identified problems of public sector training in Qatar can be grouped into the following issues: course content and course delivery. In terms of the course content, findings from the semi-structured interviews suggest that the issue of cultural differences plays a central part, wherein the participants perceive that the courses were largely based on Western concepts and that such concepts were difficult to comprehend and apply to the context of the Qatari workplace. When asked about the possible solutions to address the identified problems, participants suggested the following: (1) changing the course content to resolve the issue of cultural differences; and (2) delivering the training courses through more interactive methods of instruction (e.g. using ICT tools). Table 4.3 below presents the results of the content analysis of the transcripts of the semi-structured interviews.
Table 4.3 Results of the Content Analysis of Interview Transcripts Showing the Codes Made and the Corresponding Quotations
| Codes | Quotations |
| Training course did not match the needs of trainees.
|
|
| Training equipment was not sufficient to encourage sharing between training participants |
|
| Speaker failed to provide sufficient examples to help participants understand the concepts.
|
|
| Effects of problems on skills acquisition |
|
| Solutions to the problems |
|
Source: Created by the Researcher
Overall, stage one of the SSM indicated that the problems of vocational training in Qatar are centred on course content and course delivery.
4.3 Stage 2 of SSM: Problem Situation Expressed (Rich Picture)
This section presents a discussion of the problems of vocational training in Qatar as expressed in a rich picture (Figure 4.1). This constitutes the second stage of the SSM (Checkland, 2000; Page, 2008; Davis, 2009; Staadt, 2012; White, 2012). The expression of the problem situation in a rich picture was based on the findings from the semi -structured interviews, on the analysis of various official documents of the MOI that are relevant to public sector training, and on the results of participant-observation.
Figure 4.1 depicts the problems of vocational training in Qatar. The depiction starts with the importance placed on training by the Qatari government as it emphasises that training and development is one of the main pillars of the government for achieving its 2030 human development vision (Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics, undated). This premium placed on human development has been evidenced by the presence of: (1) numerous training centres attached to various ministries and government institutions which offer or facilitate internal training for their respective employees; (2) private training providers which organise various bespoke and public training courses; (3) internationally known organisations that provide training to government officials; and (4) the Institute of Administrative Development (IAD) which is considered the official ‘hub’ of expertise in the State of Qatar. These training centres significantly contributed to the remarkable boost in the number of trainees in government centres and private institutions (Qatar Statistics Authority, 2009). However, although these institutions have produced many graduates of vocational training, problems relevant to vocational training in Qatar’s public sector have nonetheless been identified by study participants. These problems are: (1) course content; (2) cultural differences; and (3) delivery of the training courses.
Figure 4.1 Rich Picture of the Problems of Vocational Training in Qatar’s Public Sector
Source: Created by the Researcher
4.4 Stage 3 of SSM: Problem Orientated Root Definitions
This section involves the structuring of the problematical situations related to the provision of vocational training to Qatar’s public sector. This consists of the formulation of the root definition of the vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector using the CATWOE mnemonic, which stands for customers, actors, transformation, worldview or Weltanschauung, owners and environmental constraints (Checkland & Scholes, 1990). Moreover, performance measures were devised from the definition of transformations that explain how the vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector works (input/output) or how it needs to change. In SSM, before one can think of a solution (transformation), one must arrive at a deep definition (called a root definition) of the activity that is to be modelled. Any activity can be posed in this form where the input is transformed into a different state so becoming an output. It is important to differentiate between inputs and resources. The latter are what are necessary for the transformation but the input to the transformation.
It is good system practice to always consider three layers or hierarchies of system – the system itself and then the one above (the bigger picture) and one level below (subsystem). All three together will give a complete picture as it is not possible to consider a system in isolation. This impacts on the CATWOE definitions especially for the Transformation. In the following discussion, we will take the bigger picture ( the top level) to be he vocational training system in Qatar. The system under focus is the training at the PTI and a subsystem will be a particular training course. Let us denote these levels as A, B, and C
4.4.1 Problem-oriented Root Definitions
Using the CATWOE mnemonic, the following root definitions have been derived:
- “C”- which stands for customers or the interest groups who are the beneficiaries and who are affected by the activities carried out the vocational training system. At level A, these are any public sector employees who take professional development courses offered by various training providers. At level B, it is the police who are being trained at the PTI and level C is police being trained on a particular course.
- “A” – which stands for actors or thosewho carry out the activities in Qatar’s vocational training system. At level A, these are the people working at: (i) numerous training centres attached to various ministries and government institutions which offer or facilitate internal training for their respective employees; (ii) private training providers which organise various bespoke and public training courses; (3) international organisations that provide training to government officials. At level B, these are all trainers at the Police Training Institute (PTI) and at level C ,they are particular trainers who are taking particular courses
- “T” – which stands for transformation or the manner by which inputs to the vocational training system are transformed into defined outputs. For all the systems, the inputs are the courses. If we considering level A, then we are looking at how Qatar trains its public servants i.e. how they are transformed (output) by the inputs (courses) The result of the literature search carried out in section 2 indicates that there are problems in Qatar with their courses. There is disquiet about the standard, usefulness, relevance and delivery of these courses. Cross cultural differences have not been respected and many feel that the courses are there so as to satisfy some quota rather than to improve the efficiency of the services. For the system in focus (level B), which is the Police Training Institute, more research was done (questionnaires and interviews) to discover more details of the transformation. This focussed on course content and delivery. In the bottom level © the transformation concerned a particular course (Systems Thinking) and again a more detailed transformation was revealed.
- “W” —-which stands for Weltanschauung or Worldview or the perspective from which the root definition is seen. Again, this can be discussed at three levels. At level A, the world view is that every country needs an efficient public sector and this in turn demands vocational training. This training should be focussed on the needs of the country and should employ up-to-date methods and deliver modern ideas. At the level of this research, we focus on the PTI. Their world view must be a subset of that of level A but also it reflects particular needs to do with policing. The Weltanschauung to do with policing has changed over the years because of the global nature of the world and because of changing attitudes. It is still the prevailing view that criminal must be caught and appropriately dealt with but in the other hand there should be awareness of different cultures, of differing types of crime and altogether to have a more holistic view of crime and the criminal. This percolates down to level C where the suggestion is that a course in Systems Thinking or System Awareness would be suitable to transform an old worldview to a modern one.
- “O” – which stands for owners or those who have the authority over Qatar’s vocational training system. At the top level, this is represented by the Emir of Qatar, H.H. Sheikh Tamim Bin Hamad Al Thani. who has control over everything that happens in Qatar. This power is delegated to the Ministries who then can deliver various forms of training and one particular part of one particular Ministry is the PTI which is the owner at Level B. At level C, the owner will be the trainer who gives the course.
- “E” – which stands for environmental constraints or the environmental constraints on Qatar’s vocational training systems. At level A, this is the desire and the commitment of Qatar towards training. One aspect is also the resources that they are prepared to give to the various owners At the level of this research, the resources are those that are available to the PTI. These do not just refer to equipment and manpower but also to the courses themselves which is the concern of this research.
Based on the analysis of the results the interview, internal documents, and participant- observation, the following root definition of the vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector is hereby formulated as:
The vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector which is a training system currently serviced by: training centres attached to various ministries and government institutions, private training providers, the Institute of Administrative Development (IAD), and international organisations that provide training to government officials was established and owned by the Qatari government as duly represented by the Emir of Qatar, to provide professional development courses to public sector employees to enable them to achieve their professional development goals— but which is currently being restricted by environmental constraints largely comprised by resource limitations such as the provision of training courses that are based on Western settings and the use of old training equipment.
At the system-in- focus, this translates into:
The training system for police officers, which is currently serviced by the Police Training Institute (under the control of the Minority of Interior) to provide, professional development courses to police officers to enable them to function efficiently in in a modern, global and changing— but which is currently being restricted by the attitude of the current trainers and the courses they deliver.
At the sub-system level, the root definition is:
The personal development courses for police officers given by trainers at the Police training Institute to provide, holistic or global thinking so as to respond and react to new security situations which is currently constrained by the understanding and ability of the trainers
4.4.2 Formulation of Performance Measures
One of the tasks of the SSM is to devise a set of performance measures for assessing the quality of a course offered by one of the ministries in Qatar. As was emphasized in Chapter 2 subsection 2.8, extant literature related to course content points to the characteristics or features that effective course content must possess. These characteristics include: (1) being able to meet the needs and expectations of trainees (Rudestam & Schoenholtz-Read, 2002; Pohl et al., 2005; Chan et al., 2006): (2) being able to afford new pedagogies and keep pace with the latest technological trends and international product markets (Godfey, 1997); (3) being able to challenge the trainees, pique their interests and actively engage them (Pohl et al., 2005; Nkirina, 2009); (4) being practical and useful as opposed to being theoretical (Pohl et al., 2005; Nkirina, 2009) and effectively addresses trainees’ workplace problems (Pohl et al., 2005; Chan et al., 2006); (6) being able to change conventional or old ways of thinking and introduce novel ideas (Chan et al., 2006). In addition, findings of the literature review highlight the importance of considering cultural differences in the organisational learning framework of any organization (Bickerstaffe, 2002). This will require preparing course content that is culturally relevant and applicable to Qatar.
The aforementioned findings from the literature review were used to inform the formulation of performance measures upon which the pre-test and post-test questionnaires and semi-structured interview items were based. Table 4.5 below presents the performance measures developed from the results of the literature review. It shows the activity, the precise understanding of the said activity, the indicators of progress and how the indicators are to be measured.
Table 4.4 Performance Measures Devised to Evaluate the Quality of a Course Offered By one of the Ministries in Qatar
|
Activity |
Precise identification and understanding of the activity |
Indicators of progress
|
How the indicators will be measured |
| To meet expectations |
All expectations of the participants were met. |
The experience of the course encouraged participation in more courses |
Motivation of the participants for more courses |
| Change ways of thinking | The training introduced new ideas | The participant left the course with a new way of thinking about issues | Interviews |
| To challenge | The course did not repeat old knowledge but challenged the participant | The participant ‘s knowledge was increased | Interviews |
| New Pedagogies | To change the delivery style using modern technology | Amount of use of modern IT equipment | Money invested in new equipment |
| Usefulness | The content was perceived as useful to the participant’s employment | The frequency with which the new knowledge was used at work | Improved effectiveness at work |
| To Relate to Qatar | The material was deliberately related to the Qatar culture | All case studies and examples were related to Qatari or Arabic cultures | Inspection |
Source: Created by the Researcher
4.5 Stage 4 Creation of a Conceptual Model
The root definition has defined what the system is. It was defined as an “entity” which had inputs and outputs and a transformative process to turn the former into the latter. We considered three levels of systems and the system – in – focus was the system that encompassed the Police Training Institute. The outputs required here were the worldviews of police officers which enabled them to have a modern, global understanding of the world and its problems and the inputs were the current worldviews. The transforming process was the courses offered.
The conceptual model is concerned with what the system must do in order to qualify as the system – – focus which we desire.
It is in no sense a description of any part of the real world: it is simply the structured set of activities which logic requires in a notional system which is to be that defined in the root definitions. This is a hard point to grasp and once conceptual model building starts, there is a noticeable tendency for it to slide into becoming the description of actual activity systems known to exist in the real world. This needs to be resisted because it negates the whole purpose of the approach, which is to generate radical thought by selecting some views of a problem situation as possibly relevant to improving it, working out the implications of those views in conceptual models and comparing those models with what exists in the real world situation. ( Checkland 1990)
Figure 4.2 Conceptual Model by Researcher
4.6 Stage 5 Comparison with the Real World
4.6.1 Cultural Differences
In terms of cultural differences, results of the literature review indicate that cultural distance and cultural differences can affect the knowledge transfer process (Li et al., 2014). According to Li et al. (2014), “in knowledge transfer activities, first, the knowledge seeker evaluates and subjectively locates the potential knowledge source, and the process of doing so is affected by power.” This implies that knowledge seekers — in this case, the participants/ trainees, who belong to a culture with highly collectivist nature and high power distance, will seek to evaluate and subjectively locate the potential knowledge source — in this case, courses based on Western settings, which is characterised by a culture with highly individualistic nature and low power distance. This will result in difficulty in knowledge acquisition since knowledge transfer activities are thus negatively affected by cultural distance and cultural differences between the participants/ trainees and the orientation/ setting of the course.
In addition, as pointed out by Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009), the individualism-collectivism concept posits that individual differences can negatively affect the effectiveness of training for employees who are from different cultural backgrounds. Applying this in the context of the present study, the participants/ trainees who belong to a culture with highly collectivist nature will have difficulty in digesting information or acquiring knowledge from a course based on Western settings, which is primarily individualistic in nature. Furthermore, as pointed out by Cox, Lobel and McLeod (1991), cultural differences affect group activities whereby teams consisting of participants with collectivist cultural traditions tend to display greater cooperative behaviour compared to those teams with individualistic cultural traditions, who are in turn more likely to be more competitive. Within the context of the present study, the participants/ trainees who belong to a culture with highly collectivist nature would find it difficult to participate in or successfully complete team activities required to be undertaken as part of a vocational course that is largely based on Western settings and hence foster individualistic cultural attributes. Therefore, as suggested by Rogers & Spitzmueller (2009) organisations can create an optimum training climate by the careful consideration of the individualism-collectivism construct in shaping instructions and training overviews.
In general, results of the literature review confirm the impact of cultural differences on (1) group activities (Cox, Lobel & McLeod, 1991); (2) achievement motivation (McClelland, 1961); (3) learning motivation (Niles, 1994; Rogers & Spitzmueller, 2009); and (4) knowledge transfer (Li et al. 2014). A key implication of this when applied to course content is that courses should be designed in such a way that they reflect the cultural orientation of end-users or trainees. Hence, they should be designed with the national culture of the trainees in mind.
4.6.2 Course Content
Findings from the analysis of the results of the literature review enumerated the following characteristics or features of effective course content, namely: (1) ) meets the needs of trainees (Rudestam & Schoenholtz-Read; 2002; Pohl et al., 2004; Chan et al., 2006): (2) keeps pace with the latest technological trends and international product markets (Godfey, 1997); (3) is interesting and engaging to the trainees (Pohl et al., 2004; Nkirina, 2009); (4) is practical as opposed to being theoretical (Pohl et al., 2004; Nkirina, 2009); (4) addresses trainees’ workplace problems (Pohl et al., 2004; Chan et al., 2006); and (6) is flexible and adaptable to labour market changes (Godfey, 1997; Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2012).
The importance of these above-mentioned characteristics is reflected in the results of the analysis of the pre-test and post-test surveys and semi-structured interviews. For instance, results of the pre -test indicate that participants expected that the course would be interesting and that they would be designed in such a way that they would match their training needs (see Table 3.3). However, results of the post-test indicate that the training courses failed to match the needs of the participants and that the training materials were not interesting (see Table 3.4). In addition, results of the semi-structured interviews point to course content as one of the key problems affecting the vocational training system. Hence, these findings and those from the literature review imply that the vocational training in Qatar’s public sector must offer new courses new courses that possess the previously- enumerated characteristics or features of effective course content. These new courses must be designed in such a way that they appropriately address the needs of the trainees and that they should be made interesting to the trainees.
4.6.3 Methods of Delivery of Training Courses
Findings from the analysis of the results of the literature review highlighted the critical role of ICT in learning in general and in vocational training in particular (Wheeler & Winter, 2004; Totter, Stütz & Grote, 2006; Clark et al. 2009; Garrido, Sullivan & Gordon, 2012; Wang & Zhou, 2013). As claimed by many researchers, the use of new technologies in the delivery of training courses offers new possibilities in e/m learning. These technologies include electronic and mobile learning, and mobile cloud learning platforms, which affords “better access, more control, and greater freedom for e-learners” (Weber, 2011). Corollary, results of the pre-test and post-test surveys (see Tables 3.3 and 3.4 respectively) highlight the importance of the use of appropriate training equipment in the promotion of knowledge sharing amongst trainees. In addition, results of the interviews suggest that methods of course delivery are another key problem of vocational training. Hence, within the context of the present study, the problem of vocational training in Qatar’s public sector related to the methods of course delivery can be addressed with the introduction of more technologically-advanced learning platforms such as electronic and mobile learning, and mobile cloud learning platforms as emphasised in the results of the literature review. This will facilitate sharing of training materials amongst the trainees who can access them easily any time of day and enhance interactivity amongst them.
4.7 Stage 6 Identification of Changes
Results of the analysis of findings from the interviews, internal documents and participant observation highlight the failure of the vocational training to meet participant/trainee expectations. Most participants viewed that the vocational training courses offered did not meet their needs. In addition, analysis of the post-test results indicates that the problems of vocational training in Qatar are centred on course content and course delivery. Such findings were further supported by the results of semi-structured interviews, which suggest that the problems of vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector heavily rest on course content and course delivery. In terms of course content, findings from the semi-structured interviews indicate that cultural differences hindered participants/trainees from acquiring new skills from the vocational training since they found it difficult to apply Western-based thinking onto the Qatari workplace. In terms of the methods of delivery of training courses, participants/trainees viewed that courses should be delivered through advanced methods that promote interactivity amongst them. Thus, overall, the three main problem areas have been identified through SSM are: (1) cultural differences; (2) course content; and (3) method of course delivery.
4.7.1 Action Plan
Table 4.9 summarizes the action plan that was developed based on the findings from the methodological analysis of public sector training in Qatar. The eight objectives of the action plan were derived from the three main problem areas which have been identified through SSM, namely: (1) the need to design new course content; (2) the need to take into account cultural differences in the design of the new course; and (3) the need to deliver the course through a new platform. In particular, the objectives of the action plan are enumerated as follows: (a) design new course content; (b) take into account cultural differences in the design of the new course; (c) offer the new course; (d) evaluate the new course based on the devised set of performance measures; (e) modify the new course (if needed) based on the results of the evaluation; (f) determine the most appropriate platform to deliver courses on; (g) develop the most appropriate platform for course delivery; and (h) evaluate the effectiveness of the new platform.
Table 4.5 Action Plan Incorporating the Objectives, Relevant Tasks, Tome Frame and Success Criteria
| Objective | Tasks | Time Frame | Resources Needed | Success Criteria |
| Design new course content | Undertake research on the most well-suited courses to offer | January 2014- February 2014 | Secondary research data on new and interesting courses to offer to public sector employees. | Identification of the most appropriate course to offer – one that addresses the concerns identified in the post-test results and interview results. |
| Design new course content that will be interesting to public sector employees based on research findings. | February 2014 – December 2014 | Information on training module construction. | New course was created that incorporates the concerns identified in the post-test results and interview results. | |
| Take into account cultural differences in the design of the new course | Incorporate concepts that reflect Arab culture in the design of new course content. | February 2014- December 2014 | Information of key cultural issues that must be incorporated in the new course | New course incorporates concepts that feature Arab culture. |
| Incorporate examples that are applicable in the Qatari workplace. | New course incorporates examples that are applicable in the Qatari workplace. | |||
| Offer the new course | Offer the new course to selected MOI employees | March 2015 | Organisational and personal time commitment.
Financial resources to cover trainer fees and expenses, food/refreshments for those attending training |
New course is offered. |
| Evaluate the new course based on the devised set of performance measures | Conduct semi-structured interviews on selected MOI employees who took the course | March 2015 | Personal time commitment.
Financial resources to conduct the interviews. Content analysis software. |
The new course is evaluated based on the devised set of performance measures. |
| Modify the new course (if needed) based on the results of the evaluation | Make modifications on the new course content if needed, based on the results of the evaluation. | March 2013 | Personal time commitment.
Information on the results of the course evaluation. |
If needed, depending on the results of the course evaluation, the new course content is further improved. |
| Determine the most appropriate platform to deliver courses on. | Undertake research on the well-suited platform to deliver courses on. | April 2015 | Personal time commitment.
Information on the results of the research regarding the most appropriate platform to deliver courses on. |
The well-suited platform to deliver courses on is determined based on secondary research findings. |
| Develop the most appropriate platform for course delivery. | Contact vendors/ developers who will design the platform or training delivery application. | May 2015 | Financial resources to cover expenses related to the development of the platform or application. | The most appropriate platform or application for course delivery is developed. |
| Evaluate the effectiveness of the new platform. | Conduct semi-structured interviews with training participants to examine the effectiveness of the new platform. | June 2015 | Personal time commitment.
Financial resources to conduct the interviews. Content analysis software. |
The new platform/ app for course delivery is evaluated. |
Source: Created by the Researcher
4.8 Summary of the Chapter
Results of the SSM analysis of the problematical situations affecting public sector training in Qatar indicate the following: (1) the training failed to meet participant expectations because the respective training courses were not developed appropriately to match the needs of the participants; (2) course content and course delivery are the key problems related to the provision of vocational training to Qatar’s public sector; and (3) the courses offered were based on Western settings and used Westernised concepts and examples. As a result, participants/ trainees had difficulty in learning the concepts of the course and in developing or acquiring new skills. In addition, participants/ trainees had difficulty in applying Western-based concepts to the Qatari setting due to cultural differences. In particular, Western-based concepts are closely associated with high individualism /low power distance; whereas Arab culture is characterised by high collectivism/high power distance. Such cultural disconnect serves as a barrier that hinders the application of concepts learnt from the training to the Qatari workplace.
Next, these problems of vocational training in Qatar were then expressed in a rich picture (see Figure 4.1). The rich picture highlights the existence of the following problems affecting vocational training, namely: (1) course content; (2) cultural differences; and (3) delivery of the training courses.
Then, root definitions of Qatar’s public sector training system were formulated using the CATWOE mnemonic based on the findings of the analysis of the data collected from the pre and post -test course surveys , semi-structured interviews, and internal documents of the Ministry of Interior (MOI), as well as secondary data and participant-observation.
Performance measures that were developed from literature review findings were then presented. These performance measures were centred on: meeting trainees’ expectations; changing ways of thinking; challenging the trainees; possessing new pedagogies; being highly useful; and being relevant to the Arab culture and applicable to the Qatari workplace.
This was followed by a discussion of the creation of a conceptual model of the desired public sector training in Qatar, which incorporates the following considerations: (1) changing the course content to resolve the issue of cultural differences; and (2) delivering the training courses through more interactive methods of instruction. The conceptual model was then compared with the real world whose information was obtained from findings from the literature review. This was followed by a discussion of the desired changes. Then, an action plan which was developed based on findings from the methodological analysis was formulated.
.
Chapter 5 Response to the Soft System Analysis
The key findings to come out of the Soft Systems Analysis were that the police training in Qatar did not meet the participants’ expectations. The analysis suggested that the training could benefit by:
- modifying the teaching method to account for cultural differences
- offering new courses with more modern content
- using more technologically- advanced instruction tools.
The aim of this chapter is to discuss and examine innovative attempts to answer the first two findings. The third finding is discussed in Chapter Six.
5.1 New Content
5.1.1 Choice of Course
The offering of new courses is based on the findings of the Soft Systems Analysis which highlight the following salient points: (1) many courses were considered routine by the participants; and (2) the participants felt that there is a need to offer a course that stretches them and relates to Qatar in the 21st Century especially the expectation that Qatar will become a modern hub in a global interconnected world.
As has been discussed in subsection 2.1.1 ‘Characteristics of Effective Course Content,’ an effective course content should meet the needs of trainees (Rudestam & Schoenholtz-Read, 2002; Pohl et al., 2005; Chan et al., 2005) and it must be highly relevant to the trainees’ work practice (Pohl et al., 2005). Also, the course itself should offer flexibility through the integration of the cultural and social conditions of a country (Bradley, 2002; Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2012); (2) it and it should effectively address the trainees’ workplace problems (Pohl et al., 2005; Chan et al., 2005).
Systems Thinking was chosen as the subject of a new course as it helps individuals gain an understanding of a flexible mindset that enhances the expansion and reshaping of ordinary ways of thinking within the context of complex issues (Senge, 1990). It has also been found that systems thinking interventions enhances basic cognitive processes which include “learning, memory, problem solving, decision making, and updating mental models” (Doyle, 1997).
Current thinking opines that the challenges linked with the dynamic and behavioural complexity of organizations can be well addressed through the acquisition of systems thinking skills, making such skills indispensable especially for public sector organisations (Staadt, 2012). However, systems thinking is not only well-suited for public sector organizations — it is applicable to all types of organizations affected by problematical situations as once the key organisational problems have been identified, a choice of suitable methodologies must be made in order to address the said problem (Jackson, 2010). Staadt (2012) elucidated a deeper understanding of the “framework of ideas, the methodology and the area of interest” is hence gained through the use or application of systems thinking.
Hence, systems thinking is deemed very useful in solving workplace problems and is thus, highly relevant to the trainees’ work practice. As explicated by Boyce and Pahl (2007), systems thinking facilitates knowledge acquisition about a particular subject. Furthermore, it less theoretical and more practical and is interesting to trainees. In preparing the course, great care was taken to suit it to the workplace conditions, to respect the cultural differences identified by the Soft Systems Analysis and tested in the previous course described in 5.1.
5.1.2 Plan of the Course
It was decided to run the course for ten weeks at three sessions per week. This is typical of the courses currently run by the Police Training Institute. It would be for high level police officers who are decision makers in Qatar. The course was divided into three sections: (1) how we think; (2) systemic principles; and (3) thinking tools. The researcher has had free and open access to the work of his supervisor, Professor Moscardini, and all the material used in the course has been researched, studied and assembled by the author and is new to Qatar. Details of the course plan are as follows:
1. Title of Course: Systems Thinking;
2. Module Tutor: Hamad Al Kaabi;
3. Location(s) of Delivery: Police Training Institute.
4. Synopsis of the Module
It is important that an efficient and organised police force has the ability to look outside its own boundaries and see problems in an holistic rather than in a nationalistic way. The course aims to teach the delegates that current methods of problem solving and analysis, which originated in the 18th and 19th centuries, are now out of date and that a much more pragmatic, flexible way of thinking and dealing with modern problems is needed. The course will consist of three modules: (1) How to think; (2) Paradigms and (3) Thinking Tools. The last section will present some formulated case studies and then the delegates will work in groups and be asked to create their own solution to some current policing problems in Qatar.
5. Source Material
Ackoff, R. (1994). “Systems thinking and thinking systems.” System Dynamics Review, 10(2).
Ackoff, R. (2004). Transforming the Systems Movement. Systems Thinking in Management., Philidelphia. Philadelphia.
Ackoff, R. (2005). On purposeful systems: an interdisciplinary analysis of individual and social behavior as a system of purposeful events., Aldine Transaction
Capra, F. (1997). The web of life., Flamingo
Checkland, P. (1999). Systems thinking: Systems practice.)
Checkland, P. (1998). Information systems. J Wiley
De Bono, E. (2005). The six value medals. Vermilion Random House UK
Forrester, J. (1958). Principles of systems., Pegasus Communications
Jackson, M. (2002). Systems thinking: Creative holism for management. , Jon Wiley and Sons.
Moscardini, A. & , Loutfi, M. (2001). The systems paradigm. World Multiconference on Systems, Cybernetics and Informatics., Orlando, Florida.
Moscardini, A., Molnar, I. (1995). System dynamics as a teaching tool for continuous training. ESM Modelling and Simulation., Budapest.
Voinov, A. (2008). System science and modelling: Academic Press
6. Reading List
De Bono, E. (2005). The six value medals. Vermilion Random House UK
Capra, F. (1997). The web of life., Flamingo
7. Outline of the Syllabus
- How to think
- Perception;
- Ways of thinking;
- Problem Solving.
- Paradigms
- Historic paradigms;
- Systems Paradigm;
- Cybernetic Principles.
- Thinking Tools
- Causal Modelling;
- System Dynamics;
- Learning organisation.
8. Aims of Course
This course is centred on new ways of thinking and paradigm shifts. It seeks to encourage police officers to take a more holistic view of the current problems facing Qatar and to be able to see the links that connect many situations together. They will be encouraged to evaluate, model and think creatively about their problems. It aims to inculcate a more rigorous, planned approach to problem solving that nevertheless incorporates the current systems paradigm.
9. Learning outcomes
Participants will be able to:
- Understand that there are different ways of thinking, each with positive and negative aspects and each appropriate to time and place;
- Be aware of the limitations of data input from the senses;
- Recognise thinking traps;
- Be aware of their own thinking processes;
- Understand the problem solving process;
- Be familiar with theories of learning;
- Understand the major paradigms that have occurred in World History;
- Understand what Systems Thinking entails;
- Understand that each of us use different mental models;
- Appreciate that mental models depend on perspective, culture and our senses;
- Be able to represent a situation with a mental model;
- Form a long term holistic view of a problem from the causal diagram;
- Be able to run a System Dynamic model of a situation and analyse it
- Appreciate the values of a Learning Organisation.
10. Learning and Teaching Strategy
This module will be delivered using a combination of lectures and practical seminars and discussions using modern technology such as Powerpoint slides and videos. Case studies will be used when appropriate to provide students with the opportunity of applying theory to practice, and guest lecturers will be brought in where possible. Students will be expected to work in a group and apply the material to solving a current policing problem in Qatar.
11. Assessment and feedback strategy
- Summative assessment and rationale for tasks
The final assessment which will be a case study performed by groups of five students.
- Additional formative assessment – detail of process and rationale
Specific feedback on progress will be given throughout the course.
12. Notional Student Workload
Activity type Hours
Lecture 27
Practical classes and workshops 18
Total workload 45
13. Rationale
A police force needs to run on discipline. For every situation that can occur, a set of procedures must exist. Then, when police officers are asked to perform to handle a certain situation, they must follow these procedures. Currently, many of the courses at the Police Training Institute deal with such procedures and the discipline required to follow them. When creating a new course with modern content, I decided to concentrate on the higher level of the force where the procedures and the strategy were already decided. At this level, people who follow orders without question are not needed, rather we need people who can think creatively, make decisions, form strategies and integrate into the modern world.
This is why the first part of the course concerns how people think. The thoughts that one produces are strongly influenced by the mental models that exist in the mind of the thinker. Thus the second part of the course, I decided to investigate the major paradigms that affected the history of the world. One technique that is easy to learn, but difficult to master, is the art of drawing Causal Models and running System Dynamic Models. These give a holistic view of the problem and enables one to spot many unintended consequences. This is the third part of the course.
For each area of the syllabus, I now summarise the main ideas that were taught with comments on why I think they are applicable. The slides for the sessions are shown in Appendix 4.
5.2 Part One: How We Think
In this part, I decided to look at how people think as that is a key to different cultures. This area was new to me and required extensive reading and many discussions with my Director of Studies, Professor Moscardini.
My reading list was:
- Second Nature, Gerald Edelman 2005;
- The Universal Traveller, D Koberg 1981;
- What we Believe but cannot prove, J Brockman 2005;
- What is your dangerous Idea, J Brckman 2005;
- Seven Theories of Human Nature, L Stevenson 1975;
- Curious Emotions, R Ellis 2005;
- Eureka, A Berry 1993;
- The Five day course in Thinking, Edward de Bono 1957;
- Lateral Thinking: An Introduction, Edward de Bono 2014;
- Teach yourself to Think, Edward De Bone 2009
- The Human Mind, R Winstone 2003
- Use both sides of your brain, T Buzan 1989
- How to Solve problems, W Wickelgren 1974
This part was divided into three sessions:
- Perception;
- Different ways of thinking;
- Problem solving.
For each session, I summarise my objectives, the content and demonstrate how I attempt to overcome cultural perceptions.
5.2.1 Session One – Perception
5.2.1.1 Objective
The objective of this lecture was the following:- information comes to the brain via our senses (sensations); the brain then interprets this information to produce what we term perceptions; this interpretation process is not precise, can often be faulty and thus is the cause of many misinterpretations and misunderstandings.
5.2.1.2 Content
The lecture is to show that the human brain is often an unreliable machine and it is important to realise this. There are many recorded cases where:
- people genuinely believe things that later can be proved never happened and
- things happen but are not perceived by observers.
Kant introduces two terms – the phenomenal world (which is the world as is observed) and the noumenal world (which is the world as it is). He posited that it was impossible to know the noumenal world. Our perceptions also are the basis of our culture so it is important to examine them. I focused this session around several observations.
- People perceive things differently.
This is illustrated by showing ambiguous pictures and observing a short video. I encouraged a group discussion.
- It’s easy to see something that isn’t there.
This deals with false perceptions. Some problems are impossible to solve if one assumes a restriction that isn’t stated (called an artificial boundary). If the artificial boundary is relaxed then the solution is easy. People are often prevented to solve problems because they assume things that are not actually there!
- It is sometimes hard to see what IS there.
There are two very interesting examples – one is the sayings of a major Islamic Scholar of the 11th Century and the other is a strange case of a mirage. I then look at what is termed “Inattention Blindness” I show a fifteen second video of young people passing a basketball. In the middle of the clip, a man dressed as a gorilla walks on to the centre beats his chest and walks off. Because the group has been asked to concentrate hard on counting the number of passes, they do not notice the gorilla! This is an amazing occurrence, which has been verified by many tests. Most people accuse one of substituting a different video. It is a feature of human observation which is hard to believe but at the same time it is easy to understand. There are too many inputs into the brain so without this feature, it would be permanently overloaded.
- How we approach a situation alters our perception of it.
This introduces the idea of analysis. The way we analyse something can give skewed results. The example given is that of cutting an orange where depending which way it is cut gives different views of its inside. I follow this with topical examples and follow it up in the next session concerning different ways of thinking.
- The Mind is very easily deceived.
This is covered by showing visual illusions. It also covers how the brain “fills the gaps” i.e. if information seems to fit a pattern, then the brain completes the pattern even though the pattern may not be there.
The session then finishes with a debate on the perils of perception. It can be summarised as:
- What you “see” depends on what you already know;
- What you “see” depends on how it is presented;
- What you “see” is what you want to “see”;
- The Brain can identify what it “knows” but otherwise “ guesses”;
- How can you “see” what you don’t know?
The conclusion is that the way we perceive is EXTREMELY important and the question then arises “How do we know what is correct” Several observations on perception are then discussed with the class.
5.2.2 Session Two – Ways of Thinking
5.2.2.1 Objective
Having established that perceptions themselves are not always reliable, I show there when these perceptions are in ones brain, there are many different ways of thinking about them and each can be used for a different type of problem, This area was also new to me and required extensive reading (shown in 5.2.1) and many discussions with my Director of Studies, Professor Moscardini.
5.2.2.2 Content
Types of thinking.
The lecture begins with examining the thinking that was needed to administer countries up until the middle of the 20th century. I show that such a system of governance required a few strategic thinkers but a vast number of people who did not think but just followed orders. This situation has changed in the last 40 years (greatly influenced by the discovery of computing power and the internet) and many more people are required to think and make strategic decisions.
Major classical ways of thinking are now examined:
- Logical Thinking – this is usually expressed as
- Premise 1;
- Premise 2;
- Conclusion.
This is obviously a very useful way of thinking especially when one is solving a crime (e.g. Sherlock Holmes). However it has its weaknesses when developing strategy because of what has been discussed previously. The premises may not be correct and the conclusion could therefore ne in error. Also the premises might not be independent of each other which also affects the conclusion. This session on logical thinking provided an opportunity to discuss the limitations of logic and the role (and usefulness?) of experts.
By definition, an expert is expert in a very restricted area and his knowledge outside that area is not reliable .Obtaining knowledge can be compared to digging a hole. Logic is the tool used to dig the hole but if the hole is in the wrong place then no amount of improvement will make it in the right place. It is easier to keep on digging than starting again An expert is an expert because he understands the present hole more than anyone else so he is found at the bottom of the deepest hole. There is no reason for him to jump out of the hole and start again as he would then not be an expert. Underlying these concepts of expert thinking are two fallacies:
- The established way of looking at a situation is the only possible way because it is RIGHT (culture, background, education )’
- If you work logically on a situation you will eventually arrive at the right answer (persistence).
There many circumstances (which I provide) where these two statements do not occur.
- Systematic Thinking
This can be described as thinking in a logical order:
- First do this;
- Then this;
- Then this.
Examples would include the “Toyota Way” – which is used in car manufacturing and most production lines. However, humans cannot be treated as units in a production line and therefor excessive reliance on Systematic thinking is dangerous.
- Reductionist Thinking.
Reductionalist Thinking is often known as “analysis.” In this type of thinking one breaks a problem down into small parts and solves each part. Then one puts put the solutions together to get a complete solution. This is a useful diagnostic tool i.e. if ones car breaks down, an engineer will use reductionist thinking to isolate or find the problem. But this type of thinking is not applicable when the parts are not independent. If the parts are all interconnected then it is impossible to use this type of thinking. One needs another type of thinking which is can be called Holistic Thinking.
- Holistic Thinking
The important element of this type of thinking is that the sum is greater than its parts. This is especially true when one is forming a team. A good team is more than assembling the best players, This is often seen in football but equally applies to building a good police team. The example of slicing an orange has already been discussed. I also used the old example of six blind men describing an elephant. Each gave a different description depending on which part they were feeling(see figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 Multiple Viewpoints
Source: circumsolatious.blogspot.com
- Creative Thinking
Often to solve problems a third type of thinking (creative thinking) is needed. Examples are given and then I concentrate on a particular type of creative thinking called “thinking outside the box” or Lateral Thinking. Lateral Thinking recognises dominant polarising ideas and then looks for alternatives. It does not always use logic and it recognises the role of chance in any discovery. Extensive use is made here of the books by Edward de Bono who first coined the name “Lateral Thinking” Many interesting examples are given both of lateral thinkers and lateral thinking. It provokes great discussion.
I then discussed “Thinking Traps” The clearest evidence of being stuck in your thinking is when you find yourself in a situation that you have faced before, and all you can think of doing is what you did before; and you know that didn’t work. Some of these may initially appear strange and feel decidedly awkward. Others you will find come more naturally. Which ones prove easy or difficult will depend on your existing patterns of thought. This means that you will not be able to decide how useful a particular ‘tool’ will be until you have acquired a reasonable measure of proficiency and tried it on some actual problems. However, to some extent too it will also be a case of ‘horses for courses’. Which tools work for you will also depend on the sorts of problem you encounter.
- A trap is a trap only for the creatures which cannot solve the problems it sets;
- We the trapped, tend to take our own state of mind for granted – which is partly why we are trapped.
Something that seems normal or inevitable today began with a choice that made sense at a particular time in the past but has survived despite the eclipse of the justification for that choice. An example is QWERTY.
I also discussed a concept called functional fixedness.
- A person’s predisposition to solve a given problem in a specific manner even though there are “better” or more appropriate methods of solving the problem;
- This is the opposite of experience when solving new problems.
Functional fixedness is an impaired ability to discover a new use for an object, owing to the subject’s previous use of the object in a functionally dissimilar context. It can also be deemed a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. It occurs not only with physical objects, but also with mental concepts.
I ended the session by briefly looking at Hebbian Learning
Hebbian Learning
Donald Hebb was a Canadian Neuroscientist who first postulated that thinking is caused by Neurons firing in the Brain. If two neurons repeatedly fire simultaneously then the pathway between them is enhanced. The enhanced pathways form what we call patterns. This is learning by reinforcement. It is the basis of machine learning (sometimes called Pavlovuan Learning) and has given birth to neural networks
5.2.3 Session Three – Problem Solving
5.2.3.1 Objective
This lecture shows that all problems are not of the same level of difficulty and classifies problems under several headings. The problems that the Police Training Institute will have to deal with can be called “complex”. The session then presents a general methodology for problem solving which can accommodate any of the different types of thinking that were discussed in session two. This methodology was created by me in close collaboration with Professor Moscardini.
5.2.3.2 Content
I first examine different types of problems which can be labelled as
- Hard and Soft problems;
- Open Problems and Closed problems;
- Complex Problems.
Types of problems
- Hard Problems:
- Maybe difficult to solve but objectives are clear;
- Example: A company may have data stored in an information system that they want to make available over the Internet through a web browser.
- Soft Problems:
- No clearly defined objective, large social and political components;
- Example: a company wants to determine why it is losing market share to the competition.
- Open Problems
- Not well defined – SOFT;
- Messy;
- Many Interacting Features;
- Not known if there is an answer at all;
- No definite methodology.
- Closed problems
- Well defined – HARD;
- Normally one definite answer;
- Normally, well defined method.
- Complex Problems
- Not well defined – SOFT;
- Messy;
- Many Interacting Features;
- Not known if there is an answer at all;
- No definite methodology.
In these situations, the problem requires not one decision, but a long series, in which early decisions condition later ones. For a task that is changing continuously, the same action can be definitive at one moment and useless at another.
General Methodology for Solving Problems
Most times, problems are extremely complicated and complex as seen in session two. In such cases, one does not solve the REAL problem but a representation of the problem called a MODEL of the problem.(this reflects Kant’s phenomenal and noumenal divide). Obviously, the nearer the model is to reality then the nearer the solution is to a real solution. The logic is shown in Figure 5.2 below.
The upper horizontal level shows that we must fit a model to the problem. The right hand side shows that the solution obtained is then a solution to the model not necessarily to the problem. The lower horizontal level shows that the model solution must then be interpreted in the context of the original problem. Too many times, the model solution is taken as the problem solution. The arrows indicate this this is a repeatable process – i.e. we go round the loop several times each time getting a better fit between the problem and its solution.
| PROBLEM
from the
|
 |
|
REAL WORLD
MODEL | INTERPRETATION
original problem |
MODEL SOLUTION |
of solution toFigure 5.2 General Methodology for Solving Problems
Source: Created by the Researcher
This diagram sets out a general plan but it doesn’t explain what the arrows represent e.g. how does one get from the problem to the model and how does one do the interpretation. To answer these questions, I have created a nine point plan which forms the basis for the teaching in this section. As it my own work, I have explained in in detail. Figure 5.3 shows the nine point plan model.
| PROBLEM ANALYSIS
PERCEPTION STRATEGY CONCEPTION |
MODEL IDENTIFICATION
MODELLING REPRESENTATION ANALYSIS |
IMPLEMENTATION
SOLUTON INTERPRETATION VALIDATION |
Source: Created by the Researcher
An important point is that a model is a simplified version of reality built for a particular purpose. Within a problem area, various models might be applicable. First, the problem solver must define in his own mind what the purpose of the model will be. How will it be used and who is it intended for. The plan is reinforced by first applying it with the participants to a problem and then as an exercise dividing the participants into small groups and having them apply the plan to a relevant problem for the Qatari police The nine stage plan is shown in Figure 5.3. There are three major stages – analysis, identification and implementation. Each stage can be subdivided into three sub-stages. I will now discuss the first stage – problem analysis (Figure 5.4).
PROBLEM ANALYSIS
Perception Stage Strategic Stage Conceptual Stage
What is the background What are the objectives? Name the factors or
to the problem attributes that could
affect the model
(feature list)
What exactly is being asked? What criteria are being used?
What information is available? Have you a strategy?
What information can be found?
What form of solution is required?
How will the results be used?
Source: Created by the Researcher
The important thing to notice is the arrows which indicate that this is an iterative process. One thing that should be looked at the beginning is what information is available. Far too many times, a solution is suggested then it is found that the information available does not fit the solution. It is much better to sort this out at the beginning. There are two outputs from this stage.
- Clear objectives;
- A list of all the factors or attributes that could affect the solution (An Attribute List).
This is the end of the problem analysis stage.
The second stage, called Model Identification, begins with the Attribute list from stage one (see Figure 5.5). This is the most creative and difficult stage. First, every factor on the attribute list produced previously must be carefully examined and two decisions made.
- Shall we include this factor in the model or not?
- If we do then are there any assumptions we must make about this factor?
MODEL IDENTIFICATION
Modelling Stage Representation Stage Analysis Stage
What attributes are you identify the links between Are the relationships concentrating on? the attributes consistent?
Make an assumption for Construct a causal diagram Can you
each attribute estimate all the
relationships
Keep it simple Test with Long term behaviour
Figure 5.5 Model Identification
Source: Created by the Researcher
The obvious problem is how does one know, at this initial stage, which factors to include or which to exclude? The answer lies in the fact that it is an iterative process. It is best to start with only a few factors and then, as the process is repeated, some of them, that were initially considered important, may lose their importance and other factors may be added or deleted. Thus one is gradually constructing a more accurate model of the situation. (As explained in the next section, what will be recommended is a causal model but this process will apply to any model). But the process does not stop here. The first model will never be the best one. What is recommended in the third sub-stage is that the model is analysed and some general tests carried out. These are of a broad nature such as what would happen if this variable was zero or increased or decreased. This will invariably result is an iterative process between sub-stage two and sub-stage three.
The third stage is the implementation stage (Figure 5.6). If needed, a system dynamics model can be constructed from the causal model but sometimes that may not be needed. Once the model is considered adequate, then sensitivity tests must be carried out. This means that the solution is examined to see how sensitive it is to various scenarios. A solution that is very sensitive to conditions is not preferable as data is not always reliable. Once one is satisfied with the solution then before it is implemented it must be validated. This could either be using statistical methods or other standard validation tests. It can be seen that this is an extremely iterative process.
IMPLEMENTATION
Solution Stage Implementation Stage Validation Stage
Construct the System Sensitivity Tests Does solution relate
Dynamics model to original problem?
Stability tests Examination of Solution How valid is the model
Figure 5.6 Implementation Stage
Source: Created by the Researcher
This session concludes the first part of the course. Feedback was collected and a summary is shown below. The general impression is that this is a new type of course in Qatar that challenges ingrained assumptions. It was recognised that new ways of thinking are important to the aim of Qatar to be a business hub of a modern connected global world.
All this is a preliminary to the need for a new way of thinking. This leads to a future session where I introduce Systems Thinking Systems thinking is a specialised branch of holistic thinking. It shouldn’t be confused with Systematic thinking (described previously). Systematic means ‘having a plan or a method’ while Systemic means ‘affecting entire body or organism’. So systematic thinking deals with orderly, methodical thinking and systemic thinking with the behaviour of wholes.
5.3 Paradigms
In this part, we look at the major world paradigms that have existed and concentrate finally on the most modern paradigm (the Systems Paradigm) which I wish to introduce into the Police Training Institute. This area is new to me and required extensive reading and many discussions with my Director of Studies, Professor Moscardini.
My reading list is as follows:
- The Web of Life, Fritjof Capra 1997;
- The Hidden Connections, Fritjof Capra 2003;
- Systems Thinking and learning, S Haines 1988;
- Systems Thinking and Modelling, R Cavana 2000;
- Natures Mind, M Gazzaniga 1992;
- Descartes Dream, R Hersh 1985;
- What is this thing called Science, A Chalmers 1999.
- Emergence, S Johson 2001;
- The Tree of Knowledge, Maturana and Varela 1987;
- Seeing the Forest for the Trees, D Sherwood 2002;
- Ackoffs Best, R Ackoff 1999
For each session I will summarise my objectives, the content, demonstrate how I attempt to overcome cultural perceptions and then analyse the feedback.
5.3.1 Session Four – Different Paradigms
I consider the early Greek paradigm, the Arabic paradigm the Scientific paradigm and the Systems paradigm.
5.3.1.1 The Early Greek Paradigm
This began around Athens around 500 BC. It has many great thinkers who did not always come up with solutions but who posed very important questions which are still being debated today. This is why it is relevant to discuss this paradigm in relation to Qatar today. It was dominated by three towering figures – Socrates, Plato and Aristotle each of them very different. Socrates never recorded anything. He spent his life debating issues with the people of Athens and eventually was forced to commit suicide for “corrupting the youth of Athens” In fact he was doing the same as this course – asking them to think and to question assumptions. This was politically dangerous in Athens at the time. All we know about Socrates is what has been written by Plato.
Plato began as the disciple of Socrates but became a great thinker in his own right contributing to mathematics, philosophy, governance and Ethics. He foreshowed Kant in his parable of the caves where it posited that all we know of the world is a model and we will never know reality. Aristotle continued from Plato but also concentrated on Logic. His theory of logic lasted almost two thousand years and is the basis for logical thinking as discussed in session two. Although many of the thoughts expressed by these three giants are now redundant, the questions that they posed on how to think, how to behave and how to govern are still relevant to the 21st century and Qatar. It is important that strategic thinkers today are aware of their work.
5.3.1.2 The Arabic Paradigm
The Greek civilisation was conquered by the Romans who were not a philosophical nation. They were an example of systematic thinkers. They were excellent engineers and had a system of governance which was governed by an Emperor. Within this system they established a stability in the known world. Most of the Greek knowledge would have been lost but it was saved by the Arabic traders and continued in places such as modern Istanbul (Byzantium). There was a flourishing of knowledge, science and leaning in the Arabic world from around 900 AD to 1500 AD which was greatly helped by the stability of the Ottoman empire. This included great thinkers such as Muhammad ibn Musa abu Addellah al-Khorezmi (born about 810 AD) of which ten books still exist today. The word “algorithm” came from the phrase “thus spake al-Khorezmi” and his third book gave us the word “algrebra”. The western world is in great debt to the Ottomans for this continuation of the Greek tradition.
5.3.1.3 The Scientific Paradigm
This can be attributed to three great thinkers, Descartes in France, Liebnitz in Germany and Newton in England in the 17th century. It paved the way for the industrial revolution which ushered in the modern world. In the session I discuss three contributions by Descartes.
- He questioned what was real and arrived at the distinction between mind and matter. i.e. duality;
- He invented coordinate geometry which transformed geometry into algebra;
- He originated Analytical Thought which was discussed in session two.
I mention Liebnitz as he had a famous fall-out with Newton as to who discovered the theory of the Calculus first. The Calculus is the mathematical method that deals with change and had ben pursued for two thousand years. It is an unbelievable fact that it was discovered almost simultaneously by two geniuses in the 17th century (this fits with the role of chance which is a part of Lateral thinking).
But the main focus of this session is the work of Isaac Newton. Newton is perhaps the greatest Scientist that the world has seen. He had many successes but the greatest was that he invented the concept of Gravity. This explained almost every natural phenomenon such as why things fell to earth, why the moon went round the earth. Why the tides came in and out, the motion of the stars in the sky…. These were great scientific discoveries but the relevance to our session is that around the work of Newton came established the Scientific paradigm which exists to this day. This paradigm has several features: – Determinism, Equilibrium, Linearity, harmony, analytic thinking and logic. I will deal with each in turn.
- Determinism
This means that if one has a proven theory and one knows a precise starting point then all future motion can be determined. For example, if I know the position and velocity of a pencil and know the theory of gravity, I can determine exactly how and where it will fall. The role of an observer is negligible. This idea was originally intended for science but its applicability spread to everything. For example
“Everything is determined, the beginning as well as the end, by forces over which we have no control. It is determined for the insect as well as the star. Human beings, vegetables, or cosmic dust, we all dance to a mysterious tune, intoned in the distance by an invisible piper.” – Albert Einstein
- Equilibrium
The Scientific paradigm believes that the world (Nature) is naturally in harmony or in balance. Sometimes shocks occur than put it out of balance but its fundamental stability and its laws will eventually restore the equilibrium.
- Linearity
Linearity can be regarded as the norm. Non-linear occurrences are abnormal and should be regarded as special cases.
- Harmony
The universe behaves as a clockwork machine, which was created by God in an equilibrium state and worked in perfect harmony.
- Analytic Thinking and Logic
These topics have been discussed in session two. Thus the Scientific paradigm is a deterministic, linear, logical model of the world in perfect harmony observed by an observer.
This is an important session as most of these ideas still underpin current thinking by the majority of people. This paradigm has been indirectly responsible for all the technological advances of the last two hundred years including air travel, communications, modern living conditions, and improved productivity in all areas of consumption. The session is full of examples taken wherever possible from the Arab world but some examples, related to Newton, are from the Western world.
5.3.2 Session Five – The Systems Paradigm
The Scientific paradigm is a deterministic, linear, logical model of the world in perfect harmony observed by an observer. The Systems paradigm refutes every claim.
- Determinism
Systems thinking is not deterministic. The example is given of Edward Lorentz who was the first to discover “Chaos” This is when it is impossible to predict. Small changes can have very large effects. There is an envelope of possibilities but that is all. This goes against the Newtonian paradigm and is a major change in today’s thinking. Examples are given from weather prediction, politics and economics.
- Non- Linearity
Chaos theory results from non Linear behaviour. Another example is shown called Fractals. These are natural phenomenon that exhibits a repeating pattern that displays at every scale. If the replication is exactly the same at every scale, it is called a self-similar pattern. Fractals can also be nearly the same at different levels. This latter pattern is illustrated in the magnifications of the Mandelbrot set.. Fractals also includes the idea of a detailed pattern that repeats itself. Most of Nature is Fractal not linear. The scientific view has now completely changed and it is recognised that nature is predominantly non-linear and that linearity is the exceptional case. This area is a fruitful field for examples that are relevant and interesting.
- Equilibrium
Newton’s equilibrium only works for closed systems Open Systems exist in far from equilibrium conditions and need energy to survive Although there is no perfect harmony or equilibrium state, open systems can temporarily exist in equilibrium. This is known as DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM or HOMEOSTASIS.
As everything is interconnected, it is very difficult to predict behaviour This conclusion is the major insight of the whole course. The previous sessions have led up to this point and time was spent reinforcing it. It was not possible to involve some general scientific terms in this build up but the results have tremendous influence on solving non-scientific problems and is therefore of extreme importance to strategic thinkers and to Qatar.
- Analytic Thinking
This sees the parts as paramount, seeks to identify the parts, understand the parts and from this understanding build up a picture of the whole. Unfortunately, the whole often emerges with extra properties not contained in the parts Holistic Thinking recognises the patterns that exist throughout the whole system.
- Role of an Observer
The observer has an influence on the results. He is not independent of the events. These ideas are revolutionary in Europe and America and are totally new to Qatar. They challenge many cultural preconceptions and it is accepted that it will be a long time before such ideas are accepted. Nevertheless, it is important that these ideas are introduced. One reason is that the Qataris will understand how other people’s perceptions and another is that it is good for one’s own perceptions to be challenged.
5.3.3 Session Six – Cybernetic Principles
Cybernetics can be loosely described as the study of control – how things are organised. It is a new area of knowledge, originating in the 1950’s and has much in common with Systems Thinking. The session starts with a brief history of cybernetics. I then deal with the following aspects – purpose, variety, feedback, self-organisation and Emergence
- Purpose
The idea of purpose is a difficult one. Is there a purpose in Nature? Dawkins argues that is simply the “selfish gene”. Believers will say it is the desire of God. Environmentalists will say that it is simply the eternal laws of nature. Cybernetics recognises the idea of purpose. Living organisms are notable for their ability to maintain their identity; in spite of perturbations in their environment, Human organizations also have this characteristic. These systems are purposive. The actual forms that the purposes of companies, institutions, and organizations and their planning, organization, implementation, and control take are many and varied. Yet the nature of their functioning is always the same. It is important to accurately determine the purpose of the organisation in order to establish the system ones of the organisation. This is succinctly captured in Stafford Beers quotes: “A system is what a system does”.
- Variety
Cybernetics uses the word Variety instead of Chaos. Variety is the measure of the number of different states in a system
Examples:
A light switch has a variety of 2 (States On & Off);
A single-digit display has a variety of 10 (States 0,1,2,3,4,5,5,7,8,9) i.e 210 (2048).
Variety grows rapidly with the complexity of systems The human brain has staggeringly huge variety! Real-world systems have variety, which is effectively mathematically infinite. So how do we cope with “reality”? Control can be obtained only if the variety of the controller is at least as great as the variety of the situation to be controlled. This is called Ashby’s law. We can also use the concept of RECURSION Many problems in management are caused by confusing the levels of recursion
- Feedback
Feedback is a very important concept and I devote the whole of session seven to it. Here I just illustrate the Cybernetic view of feedback.
- Self-Organisation
Self-organisation is the spontaneous emergence of new structures and new forms of behaviour in open systems far from equilibrium, characterised by internal feedback loops and described by non-linear relationships. Several examples are given of this e.g. flocking birds. It is instructive to realise that a lot of Nature operates outside of a central control.
- Emergence
We often try to understand problems by taking them apart and studying their constituent parts. Emergent problems can’t be understood this way. Emergent systems are ones in which many different elements interact. The pattern of interaction then produces a new element that is greater than the sum of the parts and which then exercises a top down influence on the constituent systems.
5.4 Part Three: Thinking Tools
Having looked at the major world paradigms that have existed and concentrated finally on the most modern paradigm (the Systems Paradigm) which I wish to introduce into the Police Training Institute, we need some practical tools to implement the ideas. The tool or methodology chosen centres around System Dynamics. This area is new to me and required extensive reading and many discussions with my Director of Studies, Professor Moscardini. The reading list for this part is not as extensive as the other two as in this part, the concepts are easy to understand, the difficulty comes in the doing which takes a lot of practice, experience and time.
My reading list is as follows:
- Strategic Modelling and Business Dynamics, J Morecroft 2007;
- Business Dynamics, J Sterman 2000;
- The Fifth Discipline, P Senge 2005;
- Feedback Thought in Social Science and Systems Theory, G Richardson 1991;
- Causal and Simulation Modelling Using System Dynamics, I Moffat 1991.
For each session I will summarise my objectives, the content, demonstrate how I attempt to overcome cultural perceptions and then analyse the feedback.
5.4.1 Session Seven – Causal Modelling
5.4.1.1 Objective
Causal Modelling is an excellent way of pictorially setting down ones thoughts which can easily be understood by others. It is commonly used for consensus building. It also allows for long term trends to be spotted whilst also revealing possible counter-intuitive behaviour. It depends heavily on the concept of feedback, which is also covered in this session.
5.4.1.2 Content
First, we discuss the concept of feedback and how causal arrows can represent it. We follow the general problem solving methodology is followed and this section concentrates on sub-stage 2 of stage two. The assembly of a causal model will be described in various stages using a model suggested by William Rushing (2010) in his paper “Causal Loop Diagrams: Little Known Analytical Tool.” This describes the problems concerning employment – hiring and firing. The process follows several stages. First, some of the main variables their consequences are listed (Figure 5.6). This is an example of a laundry list i.e. at this stage all the variables are independent.
Source: Created by the Researcher
A second stage is now added i.e. what is the effect of the number of employers available for work. Also positive and negative signs are added. (Figure 5.7). A positive sign means that any change in a variable induces a positive change in the consequence. i.e. an increase in the case causes an increase in the consequence or alternatively a decrease induces a decrease. A negative sign means that any change is in the opposite direction i.e. an increase in the cause causes a decrease in the consequence and vice-versa.
Source: Created by the Researcher
The process is then continued with the possible effects of productivity (Figure 5.8).
Source: Created by the Researcher
This is now the interesting stage as for the first time some loops are created. (Figure 5.9) This is when the arrows return to where variable where they started. The two parallel lines at the base of the bottom loop means there is a delay.
Source: Created by the Researcher
Several loops can be identified and each loop can be assigned a sign. The sign of the loop is obtained by multiplying the individual signs at the end of the arrows. A positive loop means that there is amplification in the system whereas a loop with a negative sign means balancing behaviour. For example, in Figure 5.10, loop R1 is a positive loop as there are four negative signs and a positive sign. The product is a plus. This means that the number of employers available for work will increase productivity which decreases the number of managers needed which decreases the quality of supervision which increases the number of employees that are late which would then mean hire more employees. Notice that the sign assigned to a cause and effect assumes that no other factors are taken into consideration – it is assumed that all other things are equal.
Source: Created by the Researcher
A balancing loop is shown in Figure 5.11:
Source: Created by the Researcher
Here the signs are positive – negative-positive whose product is negative. This shows that if overtime is increased there is no need to employ extra people. Also another three positive loops are shown. This example was used as a teaching tool. I then presented two examples of counter-intuitive behaviour one to do with a car manufacturer and the other to do with a police force. The second is presented here. This simplest diagram is shown below which shows the intuitive perception that more police officers reduce the crime rate, but the next three diagrams, I show how it the situation is more complex. If there are queues building in the courts then plea-bargaining may take place which results in shorter sentences and more ex-prisoners in the community. This is shown in the expanded diagram below (see Figure 5.12).
Figure 5.12 Expanded Feedback Loop
Source: Created by the Researcher
Courts
If one now adds in the pressure on the jails that is caused by increases in convictions. More prisoners may be released. See in the diagram below (Figure 5.13).
Figure 5.13 Feedback Loop of Pressure on the Jails
The final diagram (see Figure 5.14) shows that there are four areas to be addressed – the police, the community, the courts and the jails. If one just takes a reductionist view of the problem and solves the problem in one of these areas then pressure will build on the other three. The only way to find a lasting solution is to tackle all the four problem areas at the same time. This is an example of holistic thinking and of counter intuitional effect. The session finished by showing several important archetypes and discussing where they could be relevant to the Police in Qatar.
5.4.2 Session Eight – Systems Dynamic Modelling
In a short course like this, it is only possible to introduce the ideas of System Dynamics. This is new to the Police Training Institute and I wanted to see the reaction of the trainees to this modelling tool. I therefore turned to the K-12 program initiated by MIT and chose “Overshoot and Collapse” (see Appendix ). This is a generic model and can be adapted to relevant circumstances in Qatar. I adapted this case study to reflect the Arabic Culture and asked them to use their causal modelling skills developed in session 7 to draw a causal model of the situation. This was then compared with my own causal model and a fruitful discussion enfolded . The course has purchased Powersim Studio 10 as the System Dynamics software and using this I developed a very simple population model consisting of population, births and deaths. Using this software, I built for them a System Dynamics model. They could then experiment with this model. They were then presented with the model shown in Figure 5.15. We populated this model together and observed the graphs. After playing with this model, I gave them the generic model (Figure 5.16) and asked them as a group to apply this model to a situation that occurred in their work. The feedback from this small experiment was very positive. So much so that I am presently negotiating for a full ten-week course in System Dynamics.
Source: Created by the Researcher
Model of Petroleum Extraction
5.4.3 Session Nine – The Learning Organisation
A learning organization is the term given to a company that facilitates the learning of its members and continuously transforms itself. Learning organizations develop as a result of the pressures facing modern organizations and enables them to remain competitive in the business environment A learning organization has five main features:
- systems thinking;
- personal mastery;
- mental models;
- shared vision and;
- team learning;
Systems thinking states that all the characteristics must be apparent at once in an organization for it to be a learning organization. If some of these characteristics are missing then the organization will fall short of its goal.
Personal Mastery involves
- The commitment by an individual to the process of learning is known as personal mastery.
- There is a competitive advantage for an organization whose workforce can learn more quickly than the workforce of other organizations.
- Individual learning is acquired through staff training, development and continuous self-improvement.
- Mental Models
To become a learning organization, existing mental models must be challenged. Individuals tend to espouse theories, which are what they intend to follow, and theories-in-use, which are what they actually do. Similarly, organizations tend to have ‘memories’ which preserve certain behaviours, norms and values In creating a learning environment it is important to replace confrontational attitudes with an open culture that promotes inquiry and trust. To achieve this, the learning organization needs mechanisms for locating and assessing organizational theories of action. Unwanted values need to be discarded in a process called ‘unlearning’.
- Shared Vison
The development of a shared vision is important in motivating the staff to learn, as it creates a common identity that provides focus and energy for learning. The most successful visions build on the individual visions of the employees at all levels of the organization, thus the creation of a shared vision can be hindered by traditional structures where the company vision is imposed from above.
- Team Learning
The accumulation of individual learning constitutes Team learning. The benefit of team or shared learning is that staff grow more quicklyand the problem solving capacity of the organization is improved through better access to knowledge and expertise Learning organizations have structures that facilitate team learning with features such as boundary crossing and openness. Team learning requires individuals to engage in dialogue and discussiontherefore team members must develop open communication, shared meaning, and shared understanding Learning organizations typically have excellent knowledge management structures, allowing creation, acquisition, dissemination, and implementation of this knowledge in the organization.
- Benefits of the Learning Organisation
- Maintaining levels of innovation and remaining competitive;
- Being better placed to respond to external pressures;
- Having the knowledge to better link resources to customer needs;
- Improving quality of outputs at all levels;
- Improving Corporate image by becoming more people oriented;
- Increasing the pace of change within the organization.
- Barriers
Even within or without learning organization, problems can stall the process of learning or cause it to regress. Most of them arise from an organization not fully embracing all the necessary facets. Once these problems can be identified, work can begin on improving them. Some organizations find it hard to embrace personal mastery because as a concept it is intangible and the benefits cannot be quantified; personal mastery can even be seen as a threat to the organization. This threat can be real, as Senge points out, that “to empower people in an unaligned organization can be counterproductive”. In other words, if individuals do not engage with a shared vision, personal mastery could be used to advance their own personal visions. In some organizations a lack of a learning culture can be a barrier to learning. An environment must be created where individuals can share learning without it being devalued and ignored, so more people can benefit from their knowledge and the individuals becomes empowered. A learning organization needs to fully accept the removal of traditional hierarchical structures.
Resistance to learning can occur within a learning organization if there is not sufficient buy-in at an individual level. This is often encountered with people who feel threatened by change or believe that they have the most to lose. They are likely to have closed mind sets, and are not willing to engage with mental models. Unless implemented coherently across the organization, learning can be viewed as elitist and restricted to senior levels. In that case, learning will not be viewed as a shared vision. If training and development is compulsory, it can be viewed as a form of control, rather than as personal development] Learning and the pursuit of personal mastery needs to be an individual choice, therefore enforced take-up will not work.
- Challenges
The first is that an organization does not have enough time. Employees and management may have other issues that take priority over trying to change the culture of their organization. The team may not be able to commit the time an institution does not have the appropriate help or training. For an organization to be able to change, it needs to know the steps necessary to solve the problems it faces. As a solution, a mentor or coach who is well versed in the learning organization concept may be necessary.
Also, the change may not be relevant to the organization’s needs. Time should be spent on the actual issues of the organization and its daily issues. To combat this challenge, a strategy must be built. The organization should determine what its problems are before entering into the transformation. Training should remain linked to business results so that it is easier for employees to connect the training with everyday issues.
The change becoming a community and a learning organization is called a “Galilean Shift”. The organization is comparedto the Galileo Galilei heliocentric revolution that changed the view that earth was the centre of the universe.
5.5 Evaluation of the New Course
This course was attended by eight high ranking officers in the Qatar Police Training Institute. Because of this smaller group , it was possible to get much more detailed feedback. Semi-structure interviews were conducted by this researcher to further expound on the feedback of the training participants. The interview questions included the following: (1) Did the course challenge you? Please state how; (2) Has the course changed the way that you think? If so state how you thought before and how you think afterwards; (3) Did the course relate to Qatar and its Culture?; (4) What did you learn from the course? and (5) Are such courses useful? Please state why; and (5) Did the course meet your expectations? The close-ended questions were treated statistically using SPSS version 21.
The demographics of the semi-structured interview respondents (n=8) for the new courses include the following: (1) all were male (n=8); (2) their ages were from 31-40 (n= 3), 41-50 (n=3), and 51-50 (n= 2); (3) their educational attainment include master’s degree (n= 5), and doctorate degree (n=3). Table 5.1 below presents the statistics of demographic information of the eight high-ranking police officers who took the new courses.
Table 5.1 Statistics of Demographic Information of Respondents for Semi-Structured Interviews for New Courses
| Statistics | ||||
| Gender | Age | Educational Attainment | ||
| N | Valid | 8 | 8 | 8 |
| Missing | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| Mean | 1.00 | 3.88 | 3.38 | |
| Std. Deviation | .000 | .835 | .518 | |
| Variance | .000 | .595 | .258 | |
| Percentiles | 25 | 1.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 |
| 50 | 1.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | |
| 75 | 1.00 | 4.75 | 4.00 | |
Table 5.2 summarizes the statistics of responses for the close-ended questions of the semi-structured interviews for new courses. As shown in the table, All eight respondents (n=8, 100%) believed that the new courses: (1) challenged them; (2) changed the way they think; (3) relate to Qatar and its culture; (4) are useful; and (5) met their training expectations.
Table 5.2 Statistics of Responses for the Close-Ended Questions of the Semi-Structured Interviews for New Courses
| Statistics | ||||||
| Did the course challenge you? | Has the course changed the way that you think?. | Did the course relate to Qatar and its Culture? | Are such courses useful?. | Did the course meet your expectations? | ||
| N | Valid | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 |
| Missing | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| Mean | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
| Std. Deviation | .000 | .000 | .000 | .000 | .000 | |
| Variance | .000 | .000 | .000 | .000 | .000 | |
| Percentiles | 25 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| 50 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
| 75 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
The table below summarizes the result of the content analysis of the open-ended questions of the semi-structured interviews. As shown in the table, the new course offering – systems thinking- were perceived by the respondents to be: (1) very challenging; (2) relevant to Qatar and its culture; and (3) very useful and practical. Moreover, the respondents believed that the new course met their expectation and they learned many things from it.
Table 5.3 Results of the Content Analysis of Interview Transcripts for the New Courses Showing the Codes Made and the Corresponding Quotations
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Source: Created by the Researcher
5.6 Discussion of Cultural Differences for the Course
As revealed in the SSM, there is no universally agreed definition of culture among social scientists. Various leading researchers have defined culture in different ways. In the GLOBE Project (Chhokar, et al. 2007, House, et al. 2004), researchers from 38 countries came together to develop a collective understanding (Chhokar, et al. 2007: p3). They defined it as:
Shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of significant events that result from common experience of members of collectives and are transmitted across age generations. (Chhokar, et al. 2007: p3).
Well -established cultural theory shows each group or category of people carries with it a set of common mental programs that create its national culture. Each of the major studies and many minor studies confirm this and are closely correlated (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005: 81). Culturally, the Western world, represented by mainly Americans, British and Northern Europeans, and the Arab world are widely separated. This significantly complicates the interchange of ideas (Lewis 2005: 402). Importing essentially alien methods of management, education and training go a long way to institutionalising the effects of any westernisation of public services. The result is that pressures to conform to an alternative culture are creating strong resistance and an even stronger trend towards national cultural identity.
When studies exist, other states within the region, notably Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and UAE, have received far more specific attention than Qatar. Even so, the region has long been regarded as displaying a strong common culture (Lewis 2005: 405). This is because of a common history and the overwhelming influence of Islam in every facet of personal and organisational life in the region (Adler 2002). This has led to a strong Arab identity, especially in the Gulf, helped by institutions such as the influential Qatar based Al-Jazeera broadcaster. As a result, most significant cultural commentators such as Lewis (2005), Trompenaars and Hampden Turner (1997), and Hofstede (Hofstede 1980, 1991) and many other authors refer confidently to “the Arab World”, rather than individual states. This allows the conclusions from other research in the region to be used to draw inferences.
Welsh and Raven (2005) note that in the Gulf region, family and religious values probably have a major influence on the way organisations are managed. This makes them fundamentally different from public services in the OECD countries. Yet the trend towards overseas education and training potentially widens the cultural gap between Qatari civil servants and the people they serve. This has become a matter of serious concern to people in Qatar and elsewhere in the Gulf. (Al Kaabi, 2007). Indeed, the Qatar National Vision 2030 (GSDP 2008: 4) is clear, stating:
“Preservation of cultural traditions is a major challenge that confronts many societies in a rapidly globalizing and increasingly interconnected world. …..
Qatar’s rapid economic and population growth have created intense strains between the old and new in almost every aspect of life.”
The detailed analysis in Chapter 3 has identified that training in Qatar could benefit from the incorporation of the following four cultural differences into the training.
5.6.1 Cultural Factor One
The SSM identified the environment as playing an important role in the training process. It should be conducive to learning, comfortable, open to sharing and provide up to date equipment. The room was chosen so that participants had comfortable seats with up to date equipment, internet and software. The seats were arranged so that the participants could easily communicate and work with each other. This was successful but it could be a problem to reproduce these ideal conditions when the classes are larger – 20/30 people. This is a problem that must be addressed.
5.6.2 Cultural Factor Two
The SSM analysis shows that students have high expectations that are not met by the training. The response to this is to manage these expectations and ensure that they are realistic before the course commences. Thus, the students must understand that the material is not only useful and relevant for them individually but also is important for Qatar – i.e. satisfying the collective instinct. They must also be reassured that they can (with hard work) complete the course. And will enable them to acquire and pass on skills learned in the course. Thus much thought was given to the publicity governing each session. To ensure that the right expectations exist and that the class knows the relevance and usefulness of the course to them and the nation of Qatar, the following introductions were prepared and given out before the sessions.
Session One
Perception is how we interpret “reality” and thus is the basis for our culture. Our brain interprets data and forms opinions and beliefs. This data comes from our five senses. The aim of this session is to show that the interpretation of data by our brains is often misleading. We should therefore always think about what we thing and listen to the thoughts of others.
Session Two
There are different classes of problems going from logical to complex and messy. Mathematical and scientific problems can be hard but their solution follows a logical sequence. Problems involving people are not like that. They are often messy in the sense that there are many causes and behaviours and people often do not behave in a k logical manner (but according to their perceptions) Because of this new types of thinking are needed. In this session we examine classical ways of thinking and analyse their applicability to Qatar.
Session Three
This session deals with a general methodology for solving problems using modelling. Nine stages arte discussed in detail and examples will be provided. This is a preparation for the later sessions on Causal Thinking and Systems Dynamics.
Session Four
A paradigm is a world view. It is a way of thinking that is accepted as true by all. There have only been a few world paradigms in the history of mankind. This session examines these paradigms and discusses their successes and deficiencies. It then looks at a new paradigm that is coming into existence called the systems paradigm and its related thinking called Cybernetics. It is stressed that if Qatar is to succeed in its aims, then it must understand and possible adopt this way of thinking.
Session Five
This session is an important one as it discusses a new type of thinking, called Systems Thinking, which is very useful when dealing with complex problems where everything is inter connected. It is especially important for strategic thinkers.
Session Six
Cybernetics is closely connected with Systems Thinking. It looks at the best way to organise entities from schools, academies to governments and nations. Many of the principles could be usefully employed in the Qatar Police Training Institute.
Session Seven
A useful thinking tool for the Qatari police is that of causal modelling. This allows for a holistic view of the situation to be assembled and also allows the user to insert all the various interconnections between variables. One the model is produced, often unintended connections can be identified.
Session Eight
A natural consequence of Causal Modelling is System Dynamic Modelling. This is where one can take the causal model and transform it onto a dynamic model, which accepts data and also process graphs. In this session we will see how these models work and if there is the of interest we will make a course on this for a future date.
Session Nine
The concept of the Learning organisation is a new one, which has developed from the ideas of Systems Thinking. It is hoped that the Qatar Police Training Institute could aspire to this type of organisation.
5.6.3 Cultural Factor Three
The Tutor or teacher is an important factor in the process. It is expected that he is knowledgeable and has experience in what the course is about. He can respect the Culture of the group and engage with them emotionally. The teaching style should be appropriate to the culture. In this case, I was the lecturer and took great care to satisfy the conditions. The style that was approved by the students in the test course on personal Development was adopted in this course.
5.6.4 Cultural Factor Four
The final factor is the material. This has been discussed in section 5.3. Great care was taken to choose examples that were relevant to the problems experienced in either the Arab World, the United Emirates or Qatar. This could not be the case for every example but the majority should be this way. Effort was made to choose content that would develop new ideas that can be shared.
As far as possible examples were taken that are not specifically “western” and can be understood in Qatar. Examples include:
- Throwing shoes;
- Women in Burkas;
- Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali.
In all discussions, great care was taken not to embarrass or isolate individuals and to generate a collective view.
For example, let us examine a question I chose for session 2 “Different ways of Thinking” – i.e.
“Illegal drug use and the associated criminality is a vexing problem for European governments). Plant-derived drugs, grown by peasant farmers in less-developed countries and processed, shipped and distributed by organised crime syndicates, are a major part of the problem. Chemically derived drugs, produced in illegal laboratories all over Europe have lately been gaining ground. Some drugs are addictive or dangerous or both. Most are expensive, tempting users into petty crimes. What is the solution for Qatar?”
Some possible solutions that were discussed are:
1. Increase police powers to stop and search so that suspected drug users can be identified more easily (Logical Thinking).
2. Use aerial spraying (illegally if necessary) to eliminate drug crops identified by satellite (Systematic Thinking).
3. Pay farmers (the principal 3. growers) not to grow drug crops (Lateral Thinking).
4. Legalise all drugs to eliminate the criminality associated with the drug production and distribution (Holistic Thinking).
5. Provide free, confidential help to anyone using illegal drugs (Systems Thinking).
5. Provide cheap, safe drugs on the free market to undercut the criminal interest (Systems Thinking).
7. Increase customs vigilance at all points of entry to the European Union (Systematic Thinking).
My classification of the different types of thinking was subjective. Other views are sought and it stimulated a lively debate. It is stressed that none of these ways of thinking is incorrect. They all have their use and can all be used effectively. My purpose was to demonstrate that different ways of thinking exist and that one should consider the situation before deciding on which to use.
These were different sessions seven and eight were different to the others in so far as they were largely practical. There was not enough time in the present course for the participants to thoroughly master all these skills but the purpose of the sessions was to introduce these methods to the students so that their power would be revealed. Because of the interest shown, it is intended to give further courses in Causal and System Dynamics modelling.
5.7 Summary of the Chapter
This chapter examined a new type of course call Systems Thinking that was thought to be appropriate for strategic thinkers in the Qatar police force. The course was given over fifteen weeks and detailed feedback was obtained using semi-structured interviews. The feedback was positive which agreed with my personal feelings about this course.
Chapter 6 New Methods of Training Delivery
6.1 Introduction
I designed this small course for two reasons – one to test some of the teaching skills raised by the cultural differences research and the other to test a specially designed App as a new delivery method. This is described in Chapter Six. Twenty female police officers were chosen to do this course and divided into two groups – one of which would use the App for some exercises. The purpose of teaching this course was to test various teaching ploys so the content of the course needed to be easily understandable so as not to distract from this aim. It was felt that the topic “personal development “satisfied this condition and, as a bonus, it is a useful skill for the police officers to have. The details of the course are:
| 1. Title of Course | Personal Development | |||
| 2. Module Tutor | Hamad Al Kaabi | |||
| 3. Location(s) of delivery | Police Training Institute | |||
| 4. Outline syllabus | |||||||||||
| 1) Introduction to the purpose and process of Personnel Development
2) Learning skills
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5. Aims of module |
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The course seeks to motivate women police officers by helping them to become more effective, independent and confident self-directed learners by improving their capacity to understand what they have learned and how and when they are learning, and to encourage them to monitor, reflect on, evaluate, plan and take responsibility for their own learning. In particular, the course aims to develop and enhance:
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6. Learning outcomes |
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Participants will be able to;
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7. Learning and teaching strategy |
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The students will be divided into two groups:
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8. Notional Student Workload |
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6.1.1 Evaluation of Changed Teaching Style to Reflect Cultural Differences
The course was given to two groups of Qatar police personnel. Both groups there were predominately female with an average age below thirty. A pre course questionnaire was designed to elicit expectations for the course. These were analysed and the average marks for the group are shown below.
Scale: (1) Very Unimportant; (2) Unimportant; (3) Neutral; (4) Important; (5) Very Important.
| 1. Completing the course. | 5 |
| 2. Understanding the concepts of personal development. | 5 |
| 3. To be able to apply the skills in my work. | 3 |
| 4. To be able to teach my colleagues the skills. | 2 |
| 5. To use these skills to help Qatar adapt to the modern world. | 5 |
| 6. The tutor will give me the rules for developing personal skills. | 3 |
| 7. The tutor will accommodate the questions of participants. | 3 |
| 8. The tutor will provide sufficient examples to help participants understand the concept. | 3 |
| 9. The training is developed appropriately to match the needs of the participants. | 2 |
| 10. The training materials used can be used to share knowledge to colleagues. | 2 |
| 11. The training environment is open to sharing of experiences of participants. | 3 |
| 12. The tutor will control any possible conflict amongst participants. | 4 |
| 13. The tutor will hold a positive attitude towards the problems in the Qatari Police Force. | 4 |
| 14. The tutor will develop trust and rapport with the group. | 4 |
| 15. The tutor will respect the opinions of participants. | 5 |
| 16. The tutor is able to prepare his/her materials to make it easier to understand the concepts. | 5 |
| 17. The tutor is knowledgeable in the topic. | 5 |
| 18. The tutor will be flexible in his teaching attitude. | 5 |
| 19. There is sufficient equipment to encourage sharing among participants. | 4 |
| 20. The training environment is comfortable for participants. | 4 |
| 21. The training environment is helpful in encouraging participants to take notes, etc. | 4 |
| 22. The training environment is conducive to learning. | 4 |
These questions were based on Trompenaar’s seven cultural dimensions discussed in Chapter two and based on these responses, the teaching was designed to avoid
- Isolating people – making them state opinions in front of the group;
- Conflict within the group;
- Praising individuals;
- Favouritism;
- Restraining social interactions.
The course concentrated on:
- Group decision making;
- Building relationships in the group;
- Praising group work;
- Boosting confidence;
- The importance of planning and punctuality.
As tutor, I was not afraid of:
- Displaying emotions;
- Showing positive body language;
- Being flexible with tasks and assignments;
- Relating the course to work;
- To take responsibility of the course.
After the course, I gave out a post questionnaire and the average responses are shown below. The response shows that on first appearance, my efforts were successful and the course was addressing the cultural differences revealed in chapter two.
Scale: (1) Strongly Disagree; (2) Disagree; (3) Neutral; (4) Agree; (5) Strongly Agree.
| 1. I Completed the course | 5 |
| 2. I now understand the concepts of personal development. | 4 |
| 3. I can apply the skills in my work. | 3 |
| 4. I can teach my colleagues these skills. | 3 |
| 5 These skills are useful to help Qatar adapt to the modern world. | 4 |
| 6. The tutor gave me the skills to develop my personal skills. | 4 |
| 7. The tutor accommodated the questions of participants. | 4 |
| 8. The tutor provided sufficient examples to help participants understand the concept. | 4 |
| 9. The training matched the needs of the participants. | 3 |
| 10. The training materials could be used to share knowledge to colleagues. | 3 |
| 11. The training environment allowed participants to share experiences. | 4 |
| 12. The tutor avoided conflict amongst participants. | 4 |
| 13. The tutor had a positive attitude towards the problems in the Qatar Police Force. | 4 |
| 14. The tutor developed trust and rapport with the group. | 4 |
| 15. The tutor respected the opinions of participants. | 4 |
| 16. The materials used made it easier to understand the concepts. | 2 |
| 17. The tutor was knowledgeable in the topic. | 4 |
| 18. The tutor was flexible in his teaching attitude. | 4 |
| 19. There was sufficient equipment to encourage sharing among participants. | 4 |
| 20. The training environment was comfortable for participants. | 4 |
| 21. The training environment was helpful in encouraging participants to take notes, etc. | 4 |
| 22. The training environment was conducive to learning. | 4 |
This gave me confidence in the teaching style, which was then continued for the next course on Systems Thinking.
One of the results of the SSM analysis was that there was discontent with the method of delivery that is currently being used in the public sector training of Qatar. Technology was rarely used and if so it was simply power-point presentations using an overhead projector. The recent advances in technology, coupled with the popularity of social networking, has opened up new ways of delivering training and this is the substance of this chapter – to explore the use of the mobile App.
Ubiquitous ownership of mobile devices by young people and the rise of Internet and mobile network infrastructure in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region are now considered as a means of resolving current access and consumption challenges to training and at the same time improving training effectiveness. A case is made to develop a mobile application that can make multi-media training courses available through digital devices that trainees are very familiar with and use regularly in their everyday lives.
Although the immediate focus of the application is in the context of the training services, innovations and user community targeted in this thesis, the App will be designed and developed with a consideration for more training content and wider use across the MENA region. Some critical criteria resulting from the SSM analysis that will affect the app design are:
- training services that are available whenever and wherever they may be needed;
- training services designed as small bytes that are simple to access and consume;
- the services must be sympathetic to the results of the investigations and studies in the early part of the thesis regarding cultural preferences.
As the author is not an IT specialist but has strong ideas of how to improve course delivery, the author produced a design and ideas, which were then sourced to an experienced mobile app development company in order to assemble a prototype of the required App. This has then be tested by the author in the public sector training. The lifecycle of the development process and outcomes, from conception to delivery are now described in detail.
The new training delivery strategy and methods that form the basis of the mobile app concept were formulated in the context of the findings from my analysis into Arabic cultural preferences using the seven dimensions of cultural differences identified and studied in detail in Chapter 2.
Of specific interest is the bias in Qatar towards ‘particularist’ end of the ‘Universalist-Particularist’ axis, defining attitude towards rules and relationships, where the Arabic cultural preference is towards a less formal, relationship approach. A study of the Individualism – Communitarianism axis that looks at the relationship between the group and the individual indicated that there is a preference towards the group (tribe) in Arabic culture. A personalised training approach that incorporates sharing of experiences with colleagues is aligned with the ‘relationship’ over ‘rules’ and group aspect of Arabic culture preferences.
The App concept and design thus focused on providing a feeling of personal relationship between the trainee, trainer, mentor and colleagues, whilst encouraging group learning through sharing experiences. Additionally, the graphical design of the app may need to be sympathetic to Arabic cultural preferences, although many western-based apps are current in use throughout the Middle East and North Africa.
Table 6.1 provides a full mapping between the findings in this study of the preferences of Arabic Culture within the seven blocks to the design features, functionality and resulting new training delivery methods made possible by the Mobile application.
| Cultural difference | Arabic Cultural Tendency | Design | Assessment |
| Particularist – Universalist | Rules are less important than process | The App permits the user to form his own rules for learning | Very suitable for target audience |
| Process is more important | The emphasis is on the learning process | Very suitable for target audience | |
| Individualistic- Communitarianistic | Tendency to associate with a group | App allows shared learning or group learning | Very suitable for target audience |
| Specific – Diffuse | Specific cultures separate and divide into parts. Diffuse reflects a more holistic approach | The App is structured so that the knowledge is provided in small chunks | This is disadvantage of the design as it is difficult to inculcate a holistic view |
| Achievement – Ascription | Achievement which reflects a more hierarchical structured society | The App is more equalitarian which does not reflect the Qatar culture | This does not conform with the Qatar culture but is directed to a more flexible organisational structure |
6.2 The Population and Technology Environment MENA (Middle East and North Africa) Region.
Much of the content of this section is taken from a number of up to date digital digests published on the ‘Digital Qatar’ website (http://www.digitalqatar.qa). Digital Qatar was launched in 2009 with the purpose of providing a platform for genuine thought and conversation in Qatar around everything ICT. These conversations have produced important information regarding the penetration of technical infrastructure and devices that have in turn changed social interaction, access to and sharing of information.
6.2.1 Population Demographics & Technology Penetration
Due to 50 years of rapid population growth, youths under the age of 24 now make up 50-65% of the population of the Middle East. Countries such as Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and the UAE had internet penetration rates of over 50% in 2012, while penetration rates in countries such as Morocco, Yemen and Sudan are much lower. All countries displayed rapid internet growth. Additionally, the Middle East also has one of the highest mobile penetration rates in the world and leads when it comes to smartphone adoption with the UAE leading the world with the highest smartphone penetration of 73.6% (Statista BBC Nov., 2013). The growth rate of Internet users continues to increase by over 30% on average each year. Tablet devices are also becoming increasingly popular in the Middle East (Saudi Arabia 63%, UAE 61%), according to 2013 research by the Internet Statistics Compendium.
In terms of mobile broadband, the Middle East still lacks considerably behind the Americas and Europe, with a penetration rate of 18.9%. In 2014, some of the most advanced markets in the region include Israel, where mobile broadband networks account for 63% of total mobile connections (as of Q2 2013), Turkey (59%), United Arab Emirates (55%) and Saudi Arabia (54%).
These penetration rates are higher than many developed countries and markets. Western Europe has about half its connections on mobile broadband networks and in Northern Europe around three in five connections are mobile broadband. (The rise and use of mobile Internet in the middle east: http://etc-digital.org/digital-trends/mobile-devices/mobile-smartphones/regional-overview/middle-east/)
6.2.2 Mobile and General Technology Usage in the Middle East
Figure 6.1 below shows a picture of mobile usage in MENA at October 2013. The statistics show that mobile usage is embedded within the social and work habits of a major percentage of the population.
Figure 6.1 Mobile Usage in MENA Source: FrootApps (2013)
Note that ‘Training’ is not specifically identified as an activity performed online. It would be interesting to do a specific study within the region, relating to the consumption of training and informal learning.
6.2.3 Social Networks
Social networks have also gained a high level of penetration and continue to be one of the fastest growing technology platforms used in everyday life in the MENA region. Later in the study of technology trends we can see a general move away from one to many social networks to smaller interacting social groups. Our application and approach is based on this concept to get small groups that have similar learning targets to interact and share experiences.
The image below shows the highlights of a snapshot of technology service usage in MENA Q2 2014. Technology adoption starts from a very early age which opens up many opportunities for improved training and educational services that are location and time independent.
Figure 6.2 Snapshot of Technology Service Usage in MENA Q2 2014
Source: Middle East Digital Digest – Q2 2014: http://www.slideshare.net/ictQATAR/digital-digest-q2-2014?related=1
6.2.4 Choosing a Device for Training Delivery
To deliver a rich training experience, it is needed to take advantage of all of all the media channels available, such as video, sound, still and animated graphics and text. This media may be pre-recorded and compiled or streamed live. The training needs to be delivered when the user needs it most or when they have the time available to consume it. The smart tablet and ultra-mobile (lightweight laptops) fulfil this requirement more fully than a smartphone or a desktop PC. The obvious advantage over a desktop PC is the portability and touch screen; whilst the bigger screen size, processing power, storage and battery life make the tablet and ultra-mobiles a better choice than a smartphone.
Historically tablets and ultra-mobiles have been relatively expensive and lacking in application software. This is changing rapidly as completion and the number of large companies enter more products into the market. This has fuelled a rapid growth specifically in tablet penetration, especially in wealthy nations.
As the penetration and sales figures grow the major software companies are adapting and producing versions of their software that run as native application on a tablet. This enables the tablet to compete with the ultra-mobile and desktop as the digital everyday working device of choice. The predictions are for tablet sales to approach PC sales globally by 2015.
Table 6.2 Tablet Sales Predictions for 2013, 2014 and 2015
Source: Gartner (June 2014) – Worldwide Device Shipments by Segment (Thousands of Units)
Figure 6.3 shows that Qatar is leading the world in both desktop PC and tablet adoption.
Figure 6.3 Tablet Adoption Rates for Desktop PC and Tablets in Selected Countries
Source: Middle East Digital Digest – Q2 2014 – http://www.slideshare.net/ictQATAR/digital-digest-q2-2014?related=1
However Figure 6.4 below shows that smartphones will out strip all other digital device sales in the coming years, particularly in developing countries. It was therefor decided that the training application design will initially be targeted for both tablets and smartphones.
Figure 6.4 Smartphone Adoption Rates Around the World
Source: Middle East Digital Digest – Q2 2014
http://www.slideshare.net/ictQATAR/digital-digest-q2-2014?related=1
Price will continue to be a major influence in the sale of all devices. But the need for one integrated device to serve all needs (especially voice) will be the dominating factor and will drive to a hybrid device that can serve all ‘on the move’ requirements, including training consumption. Already there is also a blurring of the lines between smartphones and tablets with the rise of the ‘phablet’, which is basically a big phone (5.5 inch is the current definition).
6.2.5 2014 Technology Trends
Mary Meeker – Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers, in her recent presentation on technology trends highlighted the rise of data produced by individuals because of the increasing number and proliferation of digital devices (see Figure 6.5 below).
Figure 6.5 Global MEMS Unit Shipment by Consumer Electronics Device, 2006-1013
Source: Forbes (2014) – http://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffbercovici/2014/05/28/the-most-important-technology-trend-of-2014-according-to-mary-meeker/
This rise in data proliferation enforces the need for the App design to provide a mechanism for getting the user to the information and training services need in the context they find themselves in. Additionally, Meeker highlighted a move to communicating in smaller and more focused groups and away from the current one to many models such as Facebook.
Figure 6.6 Projected Move to Communicating in Smaller And More Focused Groups
These trends indicate that a to move towards more closely integrated training groups that are independent of time and location, but tightly focused on content and interaction is likely to produce positive learning experiences in line with the digital activity expected from future employees and learners. This also aligns nicely with the cultural preferences within Arabic Culture in respect of relationships and group interaction. There were other key underpinning technology trends identified in Meeker’s presentation, that inform the decision making regarding designs for the training application: –
- Internet Users: <10% Y/Y growth & slowing;
- Smartphone Subscribers: +20% strong growth though slowing…fastest growth in underpenetrated markets like China / India / Brazil / Indonesia;
- Tablets: +52% early stage rapid unit growth;
- Mobile Data Traffic: +81% accelerating growth…video is a strong driver;
All of these trends further support the strategy to provide rich multi-media on demand digital training services delivered to personal devices across mobile networks. Specifically, there is the potential for a large growth in the ownership and everyday use of tablets and ultra-mobile devices within the MENA region.
6.3 Developments in Training Technologies and Approach
Training and development of employees is commonly recognised as a must for all organisations to build a better business. Companies need employees who have the skills and knowledge necessary to do their jobs increasingly faster and better. “A business is ultimately driven by human capital. Training and development frequently determine which organizations succeed and which fall short,” says Aaron Olson, vice president, global head of Talent Management, Aon. http://one.aon.com/using-latest-technology-bolster-employee-training
In recent years, many jobs and roles have become far more complex and require increasingly specialized knowledge. Traditional classroom instruction and even computer-based learning modules frequently do not address the unique learning requirements organizations and their employees face. In many cases, “organizations are realizing that most learning takes place outside the classroom and that it needs to be part of the organization’s culture,” says Veronica Harvey, partner, performance, reward and talent practice, Aon Hewitt. “While instructor-led training is important, it should be one part of an overall learning strategy.” Approximately 70% of professional development comes from experiences on the job. 20% occurs through coaching or mentoring. Formal training accounts for only 10% of all learning. However many organizations still see classroom and on-line formal training as the main focus of their training effort.
Organisations have to realise that their workforce has become more technically sophisticated in their everyday lives. What worked well in the past isn’t necessarily the best approach for the present and the future. There are now many more informal ways that people learn particularly through various digital news and social sharing forums and feeds.
All types of organisations need to embrace a more self-paced model of training and personal development that combines both the formal methods with unstructured and ad hoc learning. On-line storage, flexibility of access and the ability to connect through mobile devices at any time in any location moves training and development to a more efficient on-demand model. This increases the potential audiences that can consume training and reduces the unit cost of training materials.
Social media is a prime example of how knowledge transfer can take place in a more organic and systematic way. Enterprise social media systems are redefining learning and interaction, enabling employees to post everything from presentations to audio and video files that others in the organization might use. An exchange of information can take place as a result of a question that’s displayed online or an organization can create a data repository that allows employees to search and share on topics of interest.
The goal must be to build an environment that encourages and supports learning and delivers the necessary incentives for acquiring skills and knowledge. Research shows that about 10% of employees post and share with others simply because they feel it’s worthwhile and important. Rewards can push the number up to 80% or higher.
Learning is always evolving with a trend to a more tailored individualised learning experience to the individual where the learner shares and consumes when and where they feel comfortable. Trainers should put more emphasis on helping individuals create their own personal learning portfolios and develop learning habits that fit in with their all round interaction with technology and social and news media. Learning will increasingly become part an important and often informal part of the everyday digital interaction of employees inside and outside of the work environment.
6.4 Mobile Application Concept Overview and Considerations
6.4.1 Introduction
The previous section clearly outlines the argument to use technological advances and the changing online habits of a younger workforce as a driver to move from conventional structured, timetabled classroom training to a more on-demand shared learning experience. This motivated the production of a mobile application that was flexible in terms of content and training consumption, but personalised to the needs of the device owner. An experienced App development company was approached and contracted to produce a prototype mobile application that could be trialled with a small, targeted group from the Ministry of Interior, using the targeted training scope and content
6.4.2 Scope
Given the timeframe available for development and financial constraints it was agreed with the developer to provide an early prototype app using RAD techniques (explained later), that would be able to deliver ‘hard coded’ training content to test the user experience. It was understood that a more ‘integrated’ approach would ideally be deployed once the initial prototype was reviewed, specifically taking into account the likelihood of existing training management systems at a corporate level.
6.4.3 Training Content
The initial training content for the scope of the prototype covers ‘Personal Development’ training for women police officers as detailed below. Specific objectives for the training module must be considered within the app design.
“The module is centred on learning and development. It aims help women police officers become effective, independent and confident self-directed life-long learners. Theory will be presented in lectures, and discussed in seminars. Participants will produce a portfolio of their best work showcasing their skills and abilities, which can be stored on their personal records. This will also enable them to record their personal objectives and evaluate their progress towards the achievement of these objectives, thus continuously developing their career plans. This portfolio will be summatively assessed, as well as being used to give formative feedback. By using reflective practice to understand how they are learning and how to prove what they have learned, and recording this in the portfolio, they will be able to relate their skills and capabilities to their employment.”
6.4.4 Project Approach
I agreed a RAD (Rapid Application Development) approach with the development company. The main feature of using RAD as an application development approach is the involvement of the customer and end users throughout the development process. This is achieved by having many test and commenting informal sessions between the developer and user teams. This in turn demands a modular approach to the development of the application to enable application features to be tested as they become available. This approach also demands a developer who is happy with making changes throughout the development lifecycle without necessarily charging for each change. Often RAD is driven by the time available so certain features may be left out of versions of the application to enable early use.
6.4.5 Project Lifecycle and Schedule
RAD emphasizes a flexible process that can adapt as the project evolves rather than rigorously defining specifications and plans correctly from the start. Figure 6.7 below shows a typical RAD lifecycle approach.
Figure 6.7 RAD Lifecycle Approach
Continuous iteration involving the customer, through design and construction takes risk away from the final user acceptance process.
6.4.6 Requirements Planning – APP Design Focus
The first step in defining the application was to list the main features and benefits, and ensure that throughout the application design delivery and testing, the application will produce the required benefits (which are quantifiable wherever possible).
The essential features that the application must deliver were identified as:-
- On-demand availability: It must be possible to access and interact with training anytime at the demand of the consumer, when they need it most – anytime, anywhere any device, convenience;
- Sympathetic to the cultural difference requirements as identified in the research and questionnaire results;
- Rich media experience using everyday user mobile devices (Phone & Tablet);
- Personal learning experience;
- Learning in Small bites;
- Sharing learning experiences with others;
- Flexibility to deliver different training content type in a modular way;
- Ability for management to track usage and feedback;
- Job Assistance;
- Timely – aimed at a problem, or situation;
- Learning management;
- Monitoring and assessment (behaviours);
- Incentives – the reluctant trainee;
- Learning agility – nimble.
Potential benefits for the organisation:-
- More frequent consumption of training materials, including out of hours (working day) learning;
- Reduction in costs of training delivery;
- More employee information sharing;
- More interaction between experienced and ‘novice’ employees (mentoring);
- More feedback into the ‘learning’ ecosystem to enable continuous improvement of learning material and strategies;
- More effective staff, greater productivity, better quality etc.;
- User generated training content.
Potential benefits for the employee:
- Easier access to more knowledge and information;
- Ability to use ‘dead time’ such as travelling to / from work to train;
- Get assistance when and where it is need most;
- Share experiences, questions with peers and mentors;
- Feeling part of the team, not under pressure;
- Instant rewards for hard work;
The ability to achieve these benefits will be analysed using a questionnaire with the targeted application trial group.
6.4.7 Architecture Overview and Main Components
Given the major features and benefit requirements, an early architectural design was agreed as shown below (see Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.8 Early Architechtural Design
The main features of this architecture are:
- Central database (not in scope);
- Training content (some user generated);
- Trainee profiles and accounts;
- Usage information;
- Potential central web based site for wider sharing;
- Integration with any existing training management system;
- Mobile app (in scope)
- Consumption of small bite training to support working events (need it now);
- In slow – time training content;
- Event log – reflection comments, tips;
- Share – post comments, suggestions, reflections, tips etc.
- My Profile, usage chart, relating to training access;
- Role based training plan;
- Local database;
- Content agnostic: The app should be data driven.
- Users Cloud Storage (not in scope)
- Enables the user to save app interactions such as voice, photo, video to private cloud storage to build learning Portfolio. All data will need to be tagged to facilitate office/retrieval and review;
- Social Media and Contents Links (some in scope);
Enables the user to start sharing their learning experiences and pulling down others experiences including directly related/linked video materials and other training resources.
6.4.8 App Data Model
Within the scope of the mobile application the data entities and their relationships were modelled. These were used to design and build the local database for the mobile app. Section 6.4 shows the app data model and potential extensions to a full production scope.
6.4.9 Technology Choices
There were certain technology choices needed early in the project lifecycle. The choices were informed by the analysis of technology penetration and trends conducted earlier in this report, as well as the dominating market players that to some extent limit choice due to the level of support they provide in technology forums and supporting development environments.
The main technology choice when developing a mobile application is whether to create a web app (this needs a network connection to function) or to build a mobile app that can operate on a mobile device without a network connection. There are several benefits that each option brings:
- Web app
- Normally cheaper to develop and update;
- Easier to update and distribute (no device deployment);
- Instantly available;
- Cross device compatibility;
- Easier to find via standard search tools;
- Lifecycle (will last longer – not deleted from device);
- Easier to support and sustain;
- Mobile App
- Interactivity and quality of user experience;
- Personalisation / everyday use;
- Native (phone / tablet) integration for example phone, text etc.
- No network connection (available off-line);
- Consumption of high quality graphics/video.
For the target application it was decided that the need for a very high quality user experience and the personal sharing requirements dictated that a mobile app was the best solution. However, the developer development environment (see below) enables a web-based version of the solution to be produced if needed.
In addition, the developer was consulted in relation to their preferences and rational for the options technology choices. The choices made were:
- Development Environment: In discussion with the developers, it was decided to use the adobe flash platform. This was due to the experience of the developers in this platform and the ability to compile for iOS and Android platforms as well as a potential desktop deployment, from a single code build.
- Target Device: The team decide the app could (and should) be architected for both phone and tablet usage. This would mostly impact on the use of text and screen formatting within designs.
- Initially a central database will not be available to collect usage data and enable flexibility in content. It was decided that a local (on-board device) database would be needed to store the different content available, usage statistics, contact information and progress information.
6.4.10 Structure of the App
The application shall provide the following modules.
- My Profile
- About me
- Usage and progress
- Training Content Consumption
- Bite size look-up (contextual tips and reminders)
- Consume training module
- Consumption based on events (just in time training)
- Comment log – reflection comments, personal tips and reminders
- Experience Sharing – post comments, suggestions, reflections, tips etc..
- Role based training plan
- Local database
6.4.10.1 My Profile
The App should provide the following services
- The user shall be able to store and update personal and organisational information;
- The user shall be able to monitor their usage and progress through training and related interactions;
- There will be a future requirement for the user profile to store a username and password to enable synchronisation with a central system at a later date.
6.4.10.2 Training Content Delivery
The following are the minimum requirements:
- The system shall enable module to be stored either locally or using internet links and consumed by the user;
- The modules shall be capable of being nested into subjects and topics under specific courses;
- At the finest level the training modules should provide hints and tips based on specific expected employment role based events or scenarios (in concept like a task contextual cheat sheet);
- Content should be linked to specific user employment roles where possible.
6.4.10.3 Observation Logging
The following possibilities are envisaged:
- It should be possible for the user to make a reflective comment relative to a particular event or training situation;
- It should be possible to record and event by taking a picture, voice recording or textual log;
- It should be possible to retrieve and review event logs based on time/date, work contextual or training module.
6.4.10.4 Share Learning Experience
- It should be possible to share a comment or experience with a small group of contacts;
- It should be possible to add, update and delete contacts;
- It should be possible to save interaction with contacts as an event which can be retrieved at a later date;
- Interaction with contact should be possible via phone, email or text if possible;
- It should be possible to define contacts as either mentors, experts, manager or colleague.
6.4.10.5 Role Based Plan
- It should be possible to define an intelligent training plan based on work role;
- It should be possible for the user to review their progress against this plan and for the plan to suggest a sequence of training events.
6.4.10.6 Local Database
- The local database will support secure storage of all data as generated and shipped with the app;
- The database will be able to ensure the validation of the data and enable contextual retrieval as described in the various requirements above;
- It must be possible for the database to be compatible with future synchronisation with a central master database.
6.4.11 Future Developments
The local database will most likely eventually integrate will a centralised user and course management system. The developer should consider this when building all data driven modules. Due to storage restriction on the mobile devices in will most likely be necessary to link each user up (synchronise) with personal cloud storage.
6.5 Planned Usage Mapped to App Design
6.5.1 App Usage
A prototype App was built and screenshots of the various features are shown in section 6.6. It was decided to test the App in two ways:
- To test its facility to share experiences;
- To test its usefulness in providing knowledge anytime, anywhere.
The first test used an exercise taken from the Personal Development Course described in chapter 5. (jenny@cemp.ac.uk). In this exercise, an incident happened in a park and four accounts are given by the same woman. The object of the exercise is to develop a shift in thinking along the following lines:
- from description to reflective account;
- from no questions to questions to responding to questions;
- emotional influence is recognised, and then handled increasingly effectively;
- there is a ‘standing back from the event’;
- self questioning, challenge to own ideas;
- recognition of relevance of prior experience;
- the taking into account of others’ views;
- metacognition – review of own reflective processes.
This exercise was part of the course that was given in a standard classroom/lecturer environment. The course was repeated with another group of students who were exposed to the App.
The students organized themselves into groups of six. The App was then set up so that people in these groups were in contact with each other; The four accounts were available on the App but could only be accessed in the prescribed order and a subsequent one only followed after group discussion on the previous one had taken place; The tutor can see what interaction is taking place within the group; The results of the group discussions are stored on file rather than on a flip chart.
This was chosen as a test for the App because
- there were some manageable chunks of text that could be downloaded;
- the student could reflect personally on them;
- the student could share his thoughts with others in the group using the App.
Feedback was gathered on this and is discussed in section 6.9.
The ubiquity of the App was evaluated using the questionnaire shown below. The quiz was put on the App and the student could then answer the questions at his own convenience. When the student finished the questionnaire, it was marked automatically by the App and personal feedback was provided on the App. Section 6.9 analyses these results
Questionnaire for App Evaluation
General Information
* 1. Are you male or female?
Male
Female
* 2. What is your age group?
18-20
21-29
30-39
40-49
50+
* 3. Which of the following devices do you own?
Windows Phone
Blackberry
iPad
Palm Phone
Symbian Phone
Android Phone
iPhone
Other (please specify)
* 4. Have you ever downloaded apps for your device?
Yes – Always Free
Yes – Always Paid
Yes – Free & Paid
No
* 5. How likely would you be to use our app if it was available on your device?
It already is available on my device
Extremely likely
Very likely
Moderately likely
Slightly likely
Not at all likely
User Friendliness
* 6. The App is user friendly and visually sympathetic
I don’t have any of your apps
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree
* 7. What changes would make the App more user friendly ?
* 8. How easy is it to find the information you are looking for in the app?
I don’t have any of your apps
Extremely easy
Very easy
Moderately easy
Slightly easy
Not at all easy
* 9. How helpful is the app for your everyday job duties?
I don’t have any of your apps
Extremely helpful
Very helpful
Moderately helpful
Slightly helpful
Not at all helpful
Please add comments
* 10. How likely are you to use the app travelling to/from work to train?
I don’t have any of your apps
Extremely likely
Very likely
Moderately likely
Slightly likely
Not at all likely
* 13. Is this a better way of delivering information?
I don’t have any of your apps
Very Much better
Better
No Difference
Not so good
Terrible
Please add comments
* 14. Does this App help to cut down on cultural biases?
I don’t have any of your apps
Very Much
A Little
No Difference
Not Much
Not at all
Please add comments
* 15. How likely are you to recommend the app to others?
I don’t have any of your apps
Extremely likely
Very likely
Moderately likely
Slightly likely
Not at all likely
* 16. What changes would most help our app to deliver information?
Comments on the Exercise from the PDP Course
*11. It was easy to access and read the four accounts of the park incident?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Please add comments
*12. The App allowed time for reflection?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Please add comments
*13. It was easy for me to share my thoughts with the group using the App?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Please add comments
*14. How helpful was the app in terms of obtaining more knowledge and share experience?
Extremely helpful
Very helpful
Moderately helpful
Slightly helpful
Not at all helpful
Please add comments
*15. Did you enjoy using the App in this exercise?
Very much
Moderately
Neutral
Not really
Not at all
Please add comments
Comments on the Use of the Quiz in the PDP Course
* 16. How easy was it to complete the quiz on the App?
Extremely easy
Very easy
Moderately easy
Slightly easy
Not at all easy
Please add comments
* 17. How quickly did you get feedback to your quiz answers?
Extremely quickly
Moderately quickly
Slower than anticipated
Very slow
Please add comments
* 18. It was easy to communicate to my tutor about the feedback
Extremely easy
Very easy
Moderately easy
Slightly easy
Not at all easy
Please add comments
* 19. The feedback motivated me to use the App more?
Very much
A little
Not at all
Slightly demotivating
Very demotivating
Please add comments
* 20. The course was improved by the use of the App
Very mush so
A little
Not at all
Slightly improved
Not improved at all
Please add comments
6.5.2 Planned Usage Measures Against the Design
Table 6.3 Planned Usage Measures Against the Design
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Source: Created by the Researcher
6.6 Data Model
The diagram below shown in figure 6.9 shows the data entities for the app scope and the entity relationships. This model provides a basis for the stand-alone prototype (no centralised integration). Specifically, we would expect an integrated version to post and receive data and content updates from a training management system. By definition, this system would enable the app to ‘log in’ using the app owners’ credentials, this would be username and password authentication
Source: Created by the Researcher
6.7 App Development Schedule
The following schedule detail the main activities and checkpoints planned to rapidly develop the prototype. The red ‘week indicators’ identify when end-user trials were expected to take place.
6.8 App Screen Shots
The images below show a selection of screen designs for the prototype app with functional descriptions.
6.8.1 Home Screen
Source: Created by the Researcher
The home screen (see Figure 6.10) provides the entry point into the app. The app will do several tasks behind the scenes when the app is opened, such as connecting to the local database and updating the presentation from latest saved data and any incoming data.
The home screen should show any push-notifications received since the last time the app was opened.
6.8.2 My Profile Screen and Progress
Figure 6.11 My Profile and Progress Screens
Source: Created by the Researcher
The ‘Profile’ and ‘Progress’ screens (see Figure 6.11) enables the user to set up their details to enable interaction with other contacts. Users can create and edit their data. The progress button provides an overview of progress against assigned training modules.
6.8.3 Events and Event Tips
Source: Created by the Researcher
The events screens (see Figure 6.12) enable the user to choose an event associated with a specific training scenario or general work situation. Browse the events and retrieve any tips associated with that event (these may be created by the user themselves).User can read or listen to tips associated with particular work events (may add video later).
6.8.4 Share Learning and Comments
Source: Created by the Researcher
The ‘Share’ screens (see Figure 6.13) enable the user to choose one or more colleagues to share a training experience or learning event with. Initially this will need to utilise in-built device communications facilities such as email and text or posting to a social media site. Eventually the system could use it’s own private data sharing (via a central service) that will make information easier to find (associated with different learning topics), all shared comments will be logged locally so the user can review at a later date.
6.8.5 Training Comments
Figure 6.14 Training Comments Screens
Source: Created by the Researcher
The ‘Training Comments’ screens (see Figure 6.14) enable the user to choose a training module and component, and record a comment or observation either by typing or voice recording. Future requirements may include tagging video or photographs to specific modules or learning experiences.
6.8.6 Learn Screen
Source: Created by the Researcher
The ‘Learn’ screens (see Figure 6.15) enable the user to choose a training module and component, and consume the training. This could be text, audio, video or a link to web content etc.
6.8.7 Early Design Qualification by Potential Users
At the time of writing the application development is held in the design stage while funding is sought for the full development cycle.
The intention is to get early user feedback by targeted student user groups during the different training programmes organised for the other modules. Feedback from these sessions will further inform the design process prior to full development commencing.
6.8.8 App Distribution and Consumption
Mobile applications are normally distributed for worldwide public access through ‘app stores’ such as Apples iTunes (iOS) or Google Play (Android). Apple also provide the ability to have closed distribution via there ‘enterprise’ configuration (extra cost) and Android apps can also be distributed privately via a website.
The training application will be distributed initially within the scope of the prototype study team and working group as a pre-release version. A production app as envisaged when fully integrated would most likely be rolled out as an ‘enterprise’ app in relation to the targeted enterprise training structure and organisation.
Thought should be given to the future commercial potential of the application to be used in a more generic way as a portal to commercial training ecosystems. This opportunity is explored further in the future developments section.
6.9 Evaluation of the Use of Apps in Training
The App was tested on the Personal Development course described in 5.1.1. Twenty female police officers took this course and ten of them were given the App. Five performance measures were devised:
- The use of App in delivering a course
- The readability of the “notes”
- The ability to communicate within the group at anytime and anywhere
- The ability of the trainer to monitor the students (trainer only)
- The availability of feedback (trainer only)
Each can now be analysed in detail
6.9.1 The use of App in delivering a course
This is the key question and it applies to both trainer and student. The trainer response will be discussed in 6.9.4 and 6.9.5. The response of the students was mixed and on such a small sample no firm predictions can be made. Four officers were well used to using Apps and they thought that it was a good idea and should be integrated into all learning. Two officers were mobile – averse and thus did not see any advantages for this (in their eyes) extra layer of complexity. The other three officers were indifferent but did not raise strong objections to its use.
6.9.2 The readability of the “notes”
The example was particularly chosen for the rather long “notes” that have to be read. (see Appendix One for the notes). All students said that they preferred to read the notes on paper. This probably reflects their age and their culture which is not computer oriented. It was suggested that there should be a print function (wireless operated) to allow printed version to be obtained but the problems of finding a printer and having the correct drivers etc. were acknowledged. When faced with question – “OK we understand that you prefer a printed copy but could you physically read the notes easily? the response was that the notes were readable but the facility to increase or decrease font size would be useful.
6.9.3 The ability to communicate within the group at anytime and anywhere
The response here was very positive which is encouraging for the researcher as this is seen as the major advantage of using a mobile in training. All the officers were pleasantly surprised as to how they could easily communicate to each other and how this encourage group work. The saw possibilities of using this facility in all kinds of police work not just training. At first they did not like the restriction that they could not progress till everyone had communicated as some officers were much quicker than others but they realised the reason for the restriction and by the time they arrived at “notes4” this objection had disappeared
6.9.4 The ability to communicate within the group at anytime and anywhere
The trainer was enthusiastic about this as they appreciated that every response from every student could be accessed thus making assessment of a difficult subject easier.
This facility enabled the trainer to spot the slower students and thus give the opportunity for motivation and encouragement.
6.9.5. The availability of feedback (trainer only)
As in 6.9.4, this was seen as a very useful and easy to operate facility. During the work, the tutor could give extra encouragement to the slower ones and after each note, the tutor could communicate with the group as a whole.
6.9.6. Feedback on the general idea of using the App
This was obtained by using the questionnaire described in 6.5.1. The responses are given in Table 6.4 All the respondents were female, 12 between 21 and 29 and 8 between 31 and 39 so it was not a representative sample. They all had mobile phones and the App was installed. £ had Apples, the rest had android phones nut this did not seem to make a difference.
| Question | Responses |
| Have you ever downloaded apps for your device? | 90% responded “yes” |
| How likely would you be to use our app if it was available on your device? | 50% responded “yes” |
| The App is user friendly and visually sympathetic | Four officers found it difficult to use at the beginning. All found it visually sympathetic |
| What changes would make the App more user friendly? | Ability to change the size of the script. Navigation could be improved |
| How easy is it to find the information you are looking for in the app? | This was not seen as a problem |
| How helpful is the app for your everyday job duties? | It was not used in this context but the general agreement was that it would be useful. |
| How likely are you to use the app travelling to/from work to train? | 2 – very likely, 3 – not likely,
rest undecided |
| Is this a better way of delivering information? | It is more convenient and allows records to be kept but it is difficult to move away from traditional methods |
| Does this App help to cut down on cultural biases? | It could help if it was programmed to do so |
| What changes would most help our app to deliver information? | There was no comment on this question |
| It was easy to access and read the four accounts of the park incident? | Yes this was agreed to be successful |
| The App allowed time for reflection? | Depends on the users and the context. In present example, there was no time but certainly it could be used so. |
| It was easy for me to share my thoughts with the group using the App | Very easy |
| How helpful was the app in terms of obtaining more knowledge and share experience? | Its access to the internet means that it is very easy to obtain more knowledge. |
| Did you enjoy using the App in this exercise? | It was new and interesting so answer was yes – enjoyable |
| How easy was it to complete the quiz on the App? | Quick but no quicker than normal methods |
| How quickly did you get feedback to your quiz answers? | Very quickly |
| It was easy to communicate to my tutor about the feedback | 50% responded “yes” |
| The feedback motivated me to use the App more | General agreement here |
| The course was improved by the use of the App | Both groups enjoyed the course so it was difficult to make a judgement |
6.10 Further Considerations
This was a small trial for the App and in general it was a success. Although it took some people awhile to get used to using the App, once the confidence was there, they enjoyed using it and thought it was a good way of learning. There was reluctance to rely completely on such a method but they saw it as a useful complement
6.10.1 Deployment Options and Financial Considerations
Deployment and financing options for the application provide an opportunity for innovation. This needs consideration of the potential beneficiaries from the training strategies expressed in this report. The following lists the potential beneficiaries and hence potential options for deployment and sources of funding to promote and develop the prototype.
- Individuals: Most mobile apps are purchased by individuals at a one of unit price or are given away free with in-app purchasing available to buy extensions creating a revenue stream. The user would pull their training resources together and build their share/friends environment.
- Enterprise: The model focussed on in this report. The usage is driven by the commercial training needs of the enterprise to create a more effective and productive workforce.
- Training Providers: Provide a more modern and interactive dissemination mechanism for their materials.
- Training Portals: Communal sites where training providers and consumers can come together and create flexible training environments.
- Educational Establishments (schools/colleges/Universities): Provide a dynamic and flexible learning environment for students and pupils.
6.10.2 Security
By definition the app is ‘made for sharing’, however this will be tightly controlled by the user and potentially the user’s work organisation depending on how the apps distribution and usage model develops.
Any phone application must consider the potential of loss or theft of the device providing access to personal or private data. This is normally controlled by access codes (locally on the device) or by login/password authentication needed by any central account services, which can be accessed by the phone.
6.10.3 Future Developments
The scope of the app prototype development is limited by the timeframe and finance available and is primarily aimed at creating an early model that can be analysed and reviewed in the context of the initial training objectives.
There is an obvious extension to connect the app with a central training management system, to enable more dynamic content provision and usage and performance reporting for management.
The prototype ideas could also be developed towards a more intelligent training ecosystem with feedback loops that develop organisation processes and operations based on comments and experiences of trainees. This would be a subject for further study. Learning experiences indexed relative to industry, roles and work events could be aggregated across employees (potentially across different organisation in the same industry) to inform attitudes that in turn could change interaction and design of the different work events, processes or operational techniques.
6.11 Summary
The current high population of young students and young adults of working age puts pressure on the already struggling educational and training resources of the different Middle Easter nations as they move through a period of rapid modernisation and general infrastructure construction. Viewed alongside the rapid growth in mobile and Internet technologies penetration, these challenges provide an opportunity to deliver a new training service to a receptive and highly used sophisticated young audience, when and where they need it.
New technology and online interaction can enable a more agile and flexible framework for skill building and knowledge sharing throughout an employee’s day. Smartphones and tablets, equipped with headphones and microphones are already everyday personal equipment carried at all times by a young workforce in all major cities around the world. We can be sure that in the future Mobile networks will become faster, wireless networks will have more coverage, equipment will become lighter.
All of the above will become cheaper, while people, transport and accommodation costs will become more expensive. This will drive training services away from a formal classroom environment and create more personalised and digitally connected informal learner’s scenarios.
The growth of digital interaction brings a new challenge relating to the amount of data that is produced and stored. This demands that the app design considers how to ensure the data produced can be stored intelligently to enable filtering and retrieval in future (and potentially unknown) learning scenarios. If the data is to be shared effectively it must have context and an identifiable value, otherwise it just adds to the problem.
Chapter 7 Summary, Recommendations and Further Actions
7.1 Introduction
The research set out to investigate and evaluate the quality of training in Qatar especially at the Police Training Institute. The anecdotal evidence was that training was outdated and also reflected a cultural bias towards the West.
The aim of this chapter is to bring together the different threads of the research, present a summary of what has been done and to consider to what extent the purpose of the study has been met.
The chapter also discusses the lessons learned during the course of this research and recommends possible further actions in the future.
7.2 Work Carried Out
The study set the following objectives:
(1) to conduct a relevant literature review.
(2) to conduct a methodological evaluation of public sector training in Qatar using Soft Systems Methodology (SSM);
(3) to implement the recommendations arsing for the Soft Systems Analysis.
(4) to evaluate results and
(5) to produce recommendations for Qatar related to its public sector’s vocational training system.
A full literature review is presented. This provided the background for the Soft Systems Analysis. This methodology had to be learnt from scratch and was successfully carried out
The results of the SSM confirmed that there was indeed a cultural bias in the training courses and that the courses were considered to be out of date and not too relevant to the participants. This was backed up by semi – structured interviews and questionnaires. The ideas of the SMM are of course not original but the survey carried out in Qatar was the first of its kind.
The key findings to come out of the Soft Systems Analysis were that the police training in Qatar did not meet the participants’ expectations. The analysis suggested that the training could benefit by:
offering new courses with more modern content
modifying the teaching method to account for cultural differences
using more technologically- advanced instruction tools.
A new course was constructed on Systems Thinking and the Learning organisation. This required considerable work on my behalf as all the concepts were new to me. The course was given and certainly can be claimed as original.
The use of different delivery methods was also investigated. The author has noted the rapid rise of mobile phone applications and decided to investigate the usefulness of this in delivering courses to the Police Institute. Accordingly, the author designed a set of actions and commissioned a software developer to provide the specific IT requirements. At the moment a prototype has been developed that will handle the basic functions. This is certainly an original piece of work.
Figure 7.1 shows a Process Flow Chart of the Research. The soft Systems Analysis proved difficult to carry out but it achieved its objectives. At the conclusion, there were three clear recommendations to be implemented, a set of performance measures and a methodology for progress.
The new course uses the concept of Systems thinking and the Causal Loop and Systemic Modelling tools which are completely new to Qatar. The feedback obtained was positive and more such courses seem to be required. The Mobile App was not as successful in so far as the concept is not fully accepted yet in Qatar. More work needs to be done in this area.
Recommendations were produced and evaluated by the IAD. The evaluation was positive and it is hoped that these recommendations will be put in action immediately.
Figure 7.1 Process Flow Chart of the Research Aims and Objectives of the Present Study
Source: Created by the Researcher
7.3 Context of the work
The work was carried out in the context of the Ministry of Interior and the Police Training Institute
The Ministry of Interior was formed in 1970 according to the decree No. (5) for the year 1970 stipulating the functions of the ministries and other government organizations in the country. The Ministry of Interior continued since that time its functions and missions providing peace and security and organizing police forces guaranteeing the protection of national security and maintaining safety and security of nationals and expatriates as well along with taking all necessary measures to prevent the happenings of crimes and disclosing the secrets of committed crimes in add ition to taking care of nationality related affairs, issuing travel documents, organizing expatriates entry to the country and their residence and organizing the prison. Under its control is the policing of Qatar,
Qatar highly values public security and formed a Police Agency to guarantee protection of lives, public and private property and maintenance of discipline and security. The first
police agency formed in the State of Qatar was “Discipline Police” in 10/9/1949. The functions of this section comprised of providing security and protection for citizens, maintaining discipline by moving patrols, carrying out the mission of permanent guards at vital areas in the capital and organizing traffic movement. It also carried out all other police related duties like follow up of criminals, conducting investigations on criminal and traffic cases and referring the accused to the courts in addition to deporting the suspects if they deserve it.
Recently under Emiri Decision (56) of 2009 its role was upgraded again be closely aligned with the Qatar National Vision 2030 (QNV2030) (GSDP 2008). This has been launched to serve as a clear roadmap for Qatar’s future. It aims to propel Qatar forward by balancing the accomplishments that achieve economic growth with the human and natural resources. This vision constitutes a beacon that guides economic, social, human and environmental development of the country in the coming decades, so that it is inclusive and helpful for the citizens and residents of Qatar in various aspects of their lives. It has four pillars: – Economic Development, Social Development, Human Development and Environmental Development.
To achieve its objectives, the Ministry form the Police Training Institute in 1983 which is responsible for the management of the training programme of the police of Qatar. Training is carried out according to an annual plan (of training and qualification of the Ministry of the Interior). In 1993, policewomen were introduced into the police force. The plan is prepared and executed by the PTI after the Ministry approves it. The PTI is endowed with a mission and an organisational structure to carry out its training responsibilities.
The mission of the Police Training Institute is:
To prepare, in coordination and cooperation with the various departments of the Ministry of Interior, the project of the annual plan of the Ministry regarding training and qualification. This is done according to the training needs of the Ministry and in accordance with its policies and objectives.
- To prepare and execute the education orientation and training of the newly recruited personnel as well as to do the same for the officers, non-commissioned officers and privates of the various departments of the Ministry. Orientation in specialised and refreshment courses is carried out in this respect.
- To conduct a continuous evaluation of the PTI courses in order to improve performance
- To provide technical and technological aids necessary for education and training
- To follow up new developments in training methods and techniques at the local , Arab and international levels in order to introduce them for the improvement of the security services and the performance of the personnel of the various departments of the Ministry
- To prepare the organisational regulations of the police education and training
- To supervise and evaluate the performance of the educational and training staff of the PTI in the training courses
- To encourage research and studies related to security, legal and administrative problems in order to present the best solutions for those problems in accordance with the competence of the Ministry and its policies
- To develop close relations with the security, social and scientific institutions on the local, Arab and international levels and to exchange experiences and information with them in all fields that are beneficial to the objectives of the Ministry
- To enrich the intellectual and cultural life of the Ministry through c0nvening cultural seasons with the participation of specialised experts in lectures on the various aspects of security (Kratcovski 2007)
Strengths
The PTI is an established entity with power in law to deliver vocational training. This means that any initiatives that it takes are backed by the government of Qatar and therefore will be implemented. Figure 7.1 shows a letter from the Ministry of Interior which praises the work done and encourages further development.
Weaknesses
A comprehensive analysis of Vocational training in Qatar has been made using the Soft Systems Methodology. The results have revealed that many of the courses did not meet the expectations of the participants. There were many reasons for this. The key criticisms were:
- The course were biased culturally to the West
- The courses were not challenging
- The courses did not contribute to new skills or knowledge
- The courses were not perceived as useful
- The courses used outdated delivery techniques.
Opportunities
The opportunity exists to update the courses making them more relevant and challenging. Also to use the new communication techniques such as Apps to complement the training.
Short term goal
- To teach the new course on Systems Thinking every three months to different sections of the public service.
- To commission the completion of the mobile App for two courses and analyse the feedback
Long term goal
- Over the next five years every course on the Police Training Institute agenda will be examined against the new performance indicators and updated.
- To extend the mobile App delivery to another ten courses
Threats
The only threat is inertia. The government does nothing and continues with the present system.
7.5 Achievement of the Objectives
The research objectives were:
(1) to conduct a relevant literature review;
(2) to conduct a methodological evaluation of public sector training in Qatar using Soft Systems Methodology (SSM);
(3) to implement the results of the Soft Systems Analysis;
(4) to evaluate results and
(5) to produce recommendations for Qatar related to its public sector’s vocational training system.
7.6 Future Work
The response to the recommendations is positive which indicates that the general direction of the research was needed and successful. The Systems Thinking ideas were well received and more courses need to be design in this area at different levels.
It is felt hat the communication techniques using mobile technology is the future of training. The attempt in this thesis was a first step in the process and needs to be extended. This has a knock-on effect to the content in the sense that the content must be broken down into smaller “chunks” that can be successfully accommodated on a mobile phone. This impacts on the holistic approach of Systems Thinking. Once this paradox is resolved, this new delivery method will develop exponentially.
The third avenue for future research focusses on the learning organisation. This repeatedly appeared in the Literature review and seems a logical step forward. A learning organization is the term given to a company that facilitates the learning of its members and continuously transforms itself. They develop as a result of the pressures facing modern organizations and enables them to remain competitive in the business environment. A learning organization has five main features; systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, shared vision and team learning The concept encourages organizations to shift to a more interconnected way of thinking.
Organizations do not naturally develop into learning organizations. As organizations grow, they lose their capacity to learn as company structures and individual thinking becomes rigid. When problems arise, the proposed solutions often turn out to be only short term (single loop learning) and re-emerge in the future. To remain competitive, many organizations have restructured, with fewer people in the company. This means those who remain need to work more effectively.
The PTI is an ideal candidate for a learning organisation, It needs to maintain knowledge about new courses and delivery methods, understand what is happening in the outside environment and produce creative solutions using the knowledge and skills of all within the organization. This requires co-operation between individuals and groups, free and reliable communication, and a culture of trust.
The main benefits would be
- Maintaining levels of innovation and remaining attractive to trainees;
- Being better placed to respond to external pressures;
- Having the knowledge to better link resources to the needs of the trainees;
- Improving the quality of its courses at all levels;
- Improving its Corporate image or identity by becoming more people oriented;
- Its flexibility in responding to the pace of change in training.
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Appendix One
Pre and Post tests
A. Consent Form
Dear _____________,
This is _________, a student of ___________, who is currently working on a research paper focusing on the investigation of vocational training at the ministries in Qatar in order to devise recommendations for its improvement. In line with this, I would like to ask for your participation as a respondent in this research study. Your role as a respondent is to answer a self-developed questionnaire prior to engaging and after the completion of the vocational training at the ministries in Qatar. The items in the questionnaire seek to assess whether your needs and expectations were met after the completion of the vocational training.
The records of this study will be kept private. No identifiable information will be included in any of the reports that will be made in line with this study. Research records will be kept in a locked file; only the researcher will have access to the records. All data collected will be destroyed three years after the completion of this study.
Taking part in this study is completely voluntary. You may skip any questions that you do not want to answer. If you decide not to take part or to skip some of the questions, it will not affect your participation in the vocational training. If you decide to take part, you are free to withdraw at any time.
If you have questions, you may contact _____ at ________. You will be given a copy of this consent form for your records.
Please sign according to your willingness to participate in the study.
☐ I have read the above information, and have received answers to any questions I asked. I consent to take part in the study.
☐ I have read the above information but I do not want to take part in the study.
Sincerely yours,
________________
B. Survey Questionnaire 1 (Pre-Test)
The purpose of this survey questionnaire is to gather data on your expectations on aspects of vocational training in Qatari ministries. Please choose the option which best represents your perception and expectations. Thank you.
- Demographic Information
- Gender
- Male
- Female
- Age
- Below 18 years old
- 19-30 years old
- 31-40 years old
- 41-50 years old
- 51-60 years old
- Above 60 years old
- Highest educational attainment
- High School
- Bachelor’s Degree
- Master’s Degree
- Doctorate Degree
- Associate Degree
- Other: _____________
- Pre-Test: Answer the following based on your expectations on the Vocational Training.
Importance and Expectations on the Vocational Training in Ministries
Scale: (1) Very Unimportant; (2) Unimportant; (3) Neutral; (4) Important; (5) Very Important
| Item | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) |
| 1. To learn the basics on the topic. | |||||
| 2. To learn advanced concepts on the topic. | |||||
| 3. To be able to complete the course. | |||||
| 4. To be able to apply the skills I’ve learned in training. | |||||
| 5. To develop the skills in using the topics learned in everyday activities. | |||||
| 6. To be able to teach my colleagues the skills I’ve learned from the training. | |||||
| 7. The speaker is able to share his/her knowledge well. | |||||
| 8. The speaker is able to prepare his/her materials to make it easier to understand the concepts. | |||||
| 9. The speaker accommodates the questions of participants. | |||||
| 10. The speaker is knowledgeable in the topic. | |||||
| 11. The speaker provides sufficient examples to help participants understand the concept. | |||||
| 12. The training is developed appropriately to match the needs of the participants. | |||||
| 13. The training materials provided are interesting. | |||||
| 14. The training materials provided can be used independently. | |||||
| 15. The training materials used can be used to share knowledge to colleagues. | |||||
| 16. The training environment is conducive to learning. | |||||
| 17. The training environment is open to sharing of experiences of participants. | |||||
| 18. There is sufficient equipment to encourage sharing among participants. | |||||
| 19. The training environment is comfortable for participants. | |||||
| 20. The training environment is helpful in encouraging participants to take notes, etc. |
Thank you very much for your participation.
C. Survey Questionnaire (Post-Test)
Post-Test: Answer the following based on your experience in the vocational training completed using the following rating scales (1) Strongly Disagree; (2) Disagree; (3) Neutral; (4) Agree; (5) Strongly Agree
Thank you very much for your participation.
Appendix Two
An exercise on Reflection
The aim of this exercise is to enable participants to see what reflective writing looks like, to recognise that reflection can vary in depth and that there is more potential for learning from deeper rather than superficial reflection. The exercise is developed in response to the observation that students, who are asked to reflect, tend to reflect rather superficially. In the exercise there are four accounts of an incident in a park. They are recounted by Annie, who was involved in theincident herself. The accounts are written at different depths of reflection.
Instructions for use of the exercise
The procedure for the exercise is described as a group process, though it can be used individually. The process works best when it has a facilitator, who is not engaged in the exercise. It takes around an hour. It is important that the pages are not leafed through in advance, other than as instructed – and the exercise works better when people follow the instructions. In particular, they should not begin the discussions until everyone has read the relevant account. The facilitator needs to control this. The groups can be told that there are four accounts of an incident, and that they will be reading them one after the other, with time after each session of reading for discussion about the reflective content of the account.
The exercise is introduced as means to demonstrate that there are different depths in reflection and that deeper reflection probably equates with better learning. Small groups are formed (no more than six in each). The groups are told to turn to the first account and read it quietly to themselves considering what features that they think are reflective. When it is evident that most people have read the first account, the groups are invited to discuss the account and identify where and how it is reflective. They are given about seven minutes for each discussion session. They may need less time for the earlier accounts. After the discussion session, the participants are asked to read the next account in the sequence (and they are reminded not to turn pages beyond the account in hand). After the last account has been read and discussed, groups are asked to go back through all of the accounts and to identify features of the reflection that progressively change through the accounts. For example, the accounts change from being ‘story’ to focusing on issues in the incident. In the later accounts there is more recognition that there are multiple perspectives etc. The groups are asked to list (e.g. on flip chart paper) the ways in which the accounts ‘deepen’.
In a plenary, the groups share their lists (as above) and discuss the whole exercise. It is at this stage that the participants can be referred to the Framework for Reflective Writing, which provides a general guide to features in deepening reflection. The accounts are not intended to accord directly with the stages described.
The Park (1)
I went through the park the other day. The sun shone sometimes but large clouds floated across the sky in a breeze. It reminded me of a time that I was walking on St David’s Head in Wales – when there was a hard and bright light and anything I looked at was bright. It was really quite hot – so much nicer than the day before which was rainy. I went over to the children’s playing field. I had not been there for a while and wanted to see the improvements. There were several children there and one, in particular, I noticed, was in too many clothes for the heat. The children were running about and this child became red in the face and began to slow down and then he sat. He must have been about 10. Some of the others called him up again and he got to his feet. He stumbled into the game for a few moments, tripping once or twice. It seemed to me that he had just not got the energy to lift his feet. Eventually he stumbled down and did not get up but he was still moving and he shuffled into a half sitting and half lying position watching the other children and I think he was calling out to them. I don’t know.
Anyway, I had to get on to get to the shop to buy some meat for the chilli that my children had asked for for their party. The twins had invited many friends round for an end-of-term celebration of the beginning of the summer holidays. They might think that they have cause to celebrate but it makes a lot more work for me when they are home. I find that their holiday time makes a lot more work.
It was the next day when the paper came through the door – in it there was a report of a child who had been taken seriously ill in the park the previous day. He was fighting for his life in hospital and they said that the seriousness of the situation was due to the delay before he was brought to hospital. The report commented on the fact that he had been lying unattended for half an hour before someone saw him. By then the other children had gone. It said that several passers-by might have seen him looking ill and even on the ground and the report went on to ask why passers-by do not take action when they see that something is wrong. The article was headed ‘Why do they ‘Walk on by’? I have been terribly upset since then. James says I should not worry – it is just a headline.
The Park (2)
I went to the park the other day. I was going to the supermarket to get some meat to make the chilli that I had promised the children. They were having one of their end-of-term celebrations with friends. I wonder what drew me to the playground and why I ended up standing and watching those children playing with a rough old football. I am not sure as I don’t usually look at other people’s children – I just did. Anyway, there were a number of kids there. I noticed, in particular, one child who seemed to be very overdressed for the weather. I try now to recall what he looked like – his face was red. He was a boy of around 10 – not unlike Charlie was at that age – maybe that is why I noticed him to start with when he was running around with the others. But then he was beginning to look distressed. I felt uneasy about him – sort of maternal but I did not do anything. What could I have done? I remember thinking, I had little time and the supermarket would get crowded. What a strange way of thinking, in the circumstances!
In retrospect I wish I had acted. I ask myself what stopped me – but I don’t know what I might have done at that point. Anyway he sat down, looking absolutely exhausted and as if he had no energy to do anything. A few moments later, the other children called him up to run about again. I felt more uneasy and watched as he got up and tried to run, then fell, ran again and fell and half sat and half lay. Still I did nothing more than look – what was going on with me?
Eventually I went on. I tell myself now that it was really important to get to the shops. It was the next day when the paper came through the door that I had a real shock. In the paper there was a report of a child who had been taken seriously ill in the park the previous day. He was fighting for his life in the hospital and the situation was much more serious because there had been such a delay in getting help. The report commented on the fact that he had been lying, unattended, for half an hour or more. At first, I wondered why the other children had not been more responsible. The article went on to say that several passers-by might have seen him playing and looking ill and the report questioned why passers-by do not take action when they see that something is wrong.
The event has affected me for some days but I do not know where to go or whom to tell. I do want to own up to my part in it to someone though.
The Park (3)
The incident happened in Ingle Park and it is very much still on my mind. There was a child playing with others. He looked hot and unfit and kept sitting down but the other children kept on getting him back up and making him play with them. I was on my way to the shop and only watched the children for a while before I walked on. Next day it was reported in the paper that the child had been taken to hospital seriously ill – very seriously ill. The report said that there were several passers-by in the park who had seen the child looking ill and who had done nothing. It was a scathing report about those who do not take action in such situations.
Reading the report, I felt dreadful and it has been very difficult to shift the feelings. I did not stop to see to the child because I told myself that I was on my way to the shops to buy food for a meal that I had to cook for the children’s party – what do I mean that I had to cook it?. Though I saw that the child was ill, I didn’t do anything. It is hard to say what I was really thinking at the time – to what degree I was determined to go on with my day in the way I had planned it (the party really was not that important was it?). Or did I genuinely not think that the boy was ill – but just over-dressed and a bit tired? To what extent did I try to make convenient excuses and to what extent was my action based on an attempt to really understand the situation? Looking back, I could have cut through my excuses at the time – rather than now.
I did not go over to the child and ask what was wrong but I should have done. I could have talked to the other children – and even got one of the other children to call for help. I am not sure if the help would have been ambulance or doctor at that stage – but it does not matter now. If he had been given help then, he might not be fighting for his life.
It would be helpful to me if I could work out what I was really thinking and why I acted as I did. This event has really shaken me to my roots – more than I would have expected. It made me feel really guilty. I do not usually do wrong, in fact I think of myself as a good person. This event is also making me think about actions in all sorts of areas of my life. It reminds me of some things in the past as when my uncle died – but then again I don’t really think that that is relevant – he was going to die anyway. My bad feelings then were due to sheer sadness and some irrational regrets that I did not visit him on the day before. Strangely, it also reminds me of how bad I felt when Charlie was ill while we went on that anniversary weekend away. As I think more about Charlie being ill, I recognise that there are commonalities in the situations. I also keep wondering if I knew that boy.
The Park (4)
It happened in Ingle Park and this event is very much still on my mind. It feels significant. There was a child playing with others. He looked hot and unfit and kept sitting down but the other children kept on getting him back up and making him play with them. I was on my way to the shop and only watched the children for a while before I walked on. Next day it was reported in the paper that the child had been taken to hospital seriously ill – very seriously ill. The report said that there were several passers-by in the park who had seen the child looking ill and who had done nothing. It was a scathing report about those who do not take action in such situation.
It was the report initially that made me think more deeply. It kept coming back in my mind and over the next few days – I begun to think of the situation in lots of different ways. Initially I considered my urge to get to the shop – regardless of the state of the boy. That was an easy way of excusing myself – to say that I had to get to the shop. Then I began to go through all of the agonising as to whether I could have mis-read the situation and really thought that the boy was simply over-dressed or perhaps play-acting or trying to gain sympathy from me or the others. Could I have believed that the situation was all right? All of that thinking, I now notice, would also have let me off the hook – made it not my fault that I did not take action at the time.
I talked with Tom, about my reflections on the event – on the incident, on my thinking about it at the time and then immediately after. He observed that my sense of myself as a ‘good person who always lends a helping hand when others need help’ was put in some jeopardy by it all. At the time and immediately after, it might have been easier to avoid shaking my view of myself than to admit that I had avoided facing up to the situation and admitting that I had not acted as ‘a good person’. With this hindsight, I notice that I can probably find it more easy to admit that I am not always ‘a good person’ and that I made a mistake in retrospect than immediately after the event. I suspect that this may apply to other situations.
As I think about the situation now, I recall some more of the thoughts – or were they feelings mixed up with thoughts? I remember a sense at the time that this boy looked quite scruffy and reminded me of a child who used to play with Charlie. We did not feel happy during the brief period of their friendship because this boy was known as a bully and we were uneasy either that Charlie would end up being bullied, or that Charlie would learn to bully. Funnily enough we were talking about this boy – I now remember – at the dinner table the night before. The conversation had reminded me of all of the agonising about the children’s friends at the time. The fleeting thought / feeling was possibly something like this: if this boy is like one I did not feel comfortable with – then maybe he deserves to get left in this way. Maybe he was a brother of the original child. I remember social psychology research along the lines of attributing blame to victims to justify their plight. Then it might not have been anything to do with Charlie’s friend.
So I can see how I looked at that event and perhaps interpreted it in a manner that was consistent with my emotional frame of mind at the time. Seeing the same events without that dinner-time conversation might have led me to see the whole thing in an entirely different manner and I might have acted differently. The significance of this whole event is chilling when I realise that my lack of action nearly resulted in his death – and it might have been because of an attitude that was formed years ago in relation to a different situation.
This has all made me thing about how we view things. The way I saw this event at the time was quite different to the way I see it now – even this few days later. Writing an account at the time would have been different to the account – or several accounts that I would write now. I cannot know what ‘story’ is ‘true’. The bullying story may be one that I have constructed retrospectively – fabricated. Interestingly I can believe that story completely.
Appendix Three
Listening Skills
Taken from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/listening–quiz.htm
For many of us, listening is the communication skill we use the most. Yet, many people listen poorly, and they rarely think to improve this important skill.
Poor listeners “hear” what’s being said, but they rarely “listen” to the whole message.
They get distracted by their own thoughts or by what’s going on around them, and they formulate their responses before the person they’re talking to has finished speaking. Because of this, they miss crucial information.
Good listeners, on the other hand, enjoy better relationships, because they fully understand what other people are saying. Their team members are also more productive, because they feel that they can discuss problems easily, and talk through solutions.
You can learn to be a better listener. Test your skills below, and then find out how you can improve.
Instructions
Evaluate each statement as you actually are, rather than as you think you should be.
| 1 To be more productive, I respond to emails and instant messages while I’m speaking to people on the phone. |  |
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| 2 I repeat points back during a conversation to clarify my understanding of what the other person is saying. | |
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| 3 When people speak to me about sensitive subjects, I make an effort to put them at ease. | |
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| 4 I feel uncomfortable with silence during conversations. | |
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| 5 As I listen, I compare the other person’s viewpoint with my own. | |
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| 6 To get people to elaborate on their point, I ask open questions (ones that can’t be answered with “yes” or “no”). | |
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| 7 When someone is speaking to me, I nod and say things like “OK” and “uh-huh” occasionally. | |
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| 8 I play “devil’s advocate” to prompt responses from the other person. | |
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| 9 I catch myself asking leading questions to encourage the other person to agree with my viewpoint. | |
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| 10 I interrupt people. | |
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| 11 When people speak to me, I stay completely still so that I don’t distract them. | |
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| 12 I try to read the other person’s body language as I listen. | |
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| 13 If the other person is struggling to explain something, I jump in with my own suggestions. | |
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| 14 If I’m busy, I let others talk to me as long as they’re quick. | |
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Total = 0
Preparing to Listen (Questions 1, 3, 14)
Good preparation is essential for effective listening. Without it, it’s hard to listen to people successfully.
Before you have an important conversation, remove anything that may distract you from it, so that you can focus, and so that you can show the other person that she has your full attention. Switch off your cell phone, turn off instant messaging and email alerts, put your work away, close your meeting room door, and do what you can to make sure that you won’t be interrupted.
If you know that you won’t be able to offer the other person your full attention – for example, if you’re working on an urgent task – schedule a better time to speak. However, make sure that the other person knows that the conversation is important to you.
Also, do what you can to make the other person feel at ease. Use open body language, and a friendly tone.
If he indicates that he wants to speak about a sensitive subject, and if this is appropriate, remind him that the conversation is in confidence, and that he can be honest with you.
(If you’re a manager, there may be some things that you cannot keep confidential. If your conversation is beginning to encroach on these, make this clear to the other person.)
Active Listening (Questions 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12)
When you listen actively, you not only make a conscious effort to hear the other person’s words, but, more importantly, you try to understand their whole message.
To do this, learn how to read people’s body language and tone, so that you can identify “hidden” nonverbal messages.
Also, don’t interrupt people, and don’t allow yourself to become distracted by your own thoughts or opinions. Instead, focus completely on what the other person is saying. Nod or say “OK” occasionally to acknowledge that you’re listening.
If you don’t understand something, wait for people to finish what they’re saying before you ask for clarification.
Above all, don’t formulate a response until people have communicated their whole message, and avoid any judgment or criticism until it’s your turn to speak. If you argue or “play devil’s advocate” while you listen, you may discourage them from opening up to you.
Tip:
It can be difficult not to formulate a response while the other person is talking. This is because we typically think much faster than other people can speak, so our brains are often “whirring away” while they are talking. You’ll need to concentrate hard to stay focused on the person who’s speaking, and this can take a lot of effort.
Empathic Listening (Questions 2, 4, 6, 13)
When you demonstrate empathy, you recognize other people’s emotions, and you do what you can to understand their perspectives. As such, it really helps you take active listening to the next level.
To listen empathically, put yourself “in other people’s shoes,” and try to see things from their point of view. Then, summarize what they say, in your own words, to show them that you understand their perspectives.
Also, ask open questions to help people articulate themselves fully, and avoid using leading questions that “put words in people’s mouths.” This gives them the opportunity to add further detail, and to talk about their feelings.
Importantly, don’t fear moments of silence when you listen. Instead, embrace pauses as a way to give people time to finish their point, and to allow them to reflect on what they have said.
Key Points
When you have good listening skills, you not only “hear” what’s being said, but you listen to the whole message as well. Because of this, you help others express themselves fully.
When you need to listen, make sure that you’re prepared, and ensure that things in your environment will not distract you. Also, do what you can to put people at ease.
Next, use active listening techniques so that you give people your full attention, and so that you can understand the nonverbal elements of their message.
Then, take your listening skills to the next level with empathic listening. When appropriate, embrace silence, and make an effort to see things from other people’s perspectives.
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