Big Data Clustering Techniques: Literature Review
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Published: 26th Jan 2022
2. CRITICAL SURVEY OF LITERATURE
This chapter gives an overview of the Big Data clustering techniques and the distance and the similarity measures used by them. Clustering using power method and its convergence techniques are described. The need of Hadoop to handle Big Data is been explained.
2.1 MACHINE LEARNING
Machine learning is the method of analyzing data that uses algorithm that learns continuously from the data without being programmed explicitly. They learn themselves when they are exposed to new data. Machine learning is similar to that of data mining to search for the patterns in the data [20]. Machine learning uses these data to detect patterns and adjust program actions accordingly. Facebook, web search engine, smart phones, page ranking etc. uses machine learning algorithms for its processing. It constructs program with the characteristics that automatically adjusts itself to increase the performance using the existing data. The motivation of machine learning is to learn automatically and identify the patterns to take decisions based on them. Machine learning is divided three methods namely [42],
- Supervised learning or Predictive learning
- Unsupervised learning or Descriptive learning
- Semi supervised learning.
2.1.1 Supervised Learning
Supervised learning also called as the predictive learning is a method of mapping the inputs and the outputs, given a set of training set
∑j=1Paijand
ajtotal number ofspecies j
∑i=1Paij. Then, the Chi-square distance is given as
Xih2=∑j=1p1aijahjah-aijai2
Chebyshev Distance (Maximum valuedistance) – It is the defined as the vector space where the distance between any two vectors is greatest of the distance along any coordinate dimension. It is call as max metric or L metric [50,52].
1 |
1 | 1 |
1 |
1 | 1 |
1 | 1 | 1 |
It is the maximum distance between the points in a single dimension. The formula computes the distance between two points
X=x1x2∙∙∙∙∙xnand
Y=y1y2∙∙∙∙∙ynis
Dchebp,q=maxi=xj-yj
Where
xiand
yjare the values of the
jthvariable at points X and Y. This is equal to the limit
limk→∞∑1n(pi-qik)1k
Bit Vector Distance – Let there be a N*N matrix then the bit vector distance is found at each point having d dimensions using Mb(Pi,Pj) as a d bit vector. If the xth dimension of point is greater than the numerical value the bit X of Mb (Pj,Pi) is set to 0.
Mahalanobis distance – The Mahalanobis distance is given based on the correlation structure of the data points and the individual points [53,54]. The Mahalanobis distance is computed as
Mi=(yi-y̅)S-1(yi-y̅)
where
yi= data of the ith row
Y – Row of the means
S – the estimated covariance matrix
Let X be an N*p matrix. Then the ith row of X is
xiT=(xi1……xip). The Mahalanobis distance is given as
dMH(i,j)=(xi-xj)T Σ-1xi-xj
Here Σ is the
p×psample covariance matrix. To perform it on quadratic multiplication, the mean difference is obtained and multiplied by the covariance after obtaining its transpose.
T2 Distance Measure – It is the square of Mahalanobis distance. So
Ti2=Mj2. The T2 Distance measure is given by the formula[52,54]
UCLT2=(n-1)2n1-β:p2:n-p-12
Where n is the number of observations and p is the number of variables.
2.4 SIMILARITY MEASURES
It is a metric used to measure the similarity between two objects. It compares the similarity and diversity of sample sets. It is defined as the size of the intersection divided by the size of sample sets. Given two sequence of measurements
X=x1,x2,∙∙∙∙∙,xnand
Y=y1,y2,∙∙∙∙∙,yn, the dependencies between X and Y give the similarity between them. The similarity measure can be defined as the function that becomes the degree between a pair of text objects. The value of similarity lies between 0 and 1. If the value is close to 0 then, the instance or data objects are said to be similar and if it is one they are dissimilar. A metric is said to be similar if it satisfies the following properties [55,56].
- Limited range – The value of the data points is less than the largest similarity measure
S(X,Y)≤S0
- Reflexivity
SX,Y=S0 if and only if X=Y
- Symmetric
SX,Y=SY,X
- Triangle Inequality –
SX,YSY,Z≤ZX,Y+SY,ZS(X,Z)
The metric is said to be asymmetric if it satisfies the following properties.
- Non Negative
D(X,Y)≥0
- Reflexive
DX,Y=0if and only if
X=Y
- Symmetric
DX,Y=D(Y,X)
- Triangle Inequality
DX,Y+D(Y,Z)≥D(X,Z)
In spectral clustering similarity measure is used to convert data to overcome the issues related to lack of convexity in the form of the data distribution. There are various similarity measures and some of them are explained below.
Jaccard Similarity – It measures the similarity between the objects of binary values. It is specially used for handling asymmetric binary attributes. It is usually done by choosing the number of attributes that both objects have in common and divide it by the total number of objects. The jaccard similarity is given by
JA,B=A∩BA∪B = A∩BA+B-A∩B
where {A,B} is the given sets.
Arepresents the number of elements.
A∩Brepresents the number of elements on both sets
A∪Brepresents the number of elements on either sets
Cosine Similarity – It is used to measure the similarity between two vectors by measuring the cosine of angle between them. When the angle is 0, the cosine function is equal to 1 and it’s less than one for other values. If the angle between the vectors shortens then there is more similarity between the vectors [53,57]. The formula for cosine similarity is given as
Sx,y=cosθ=x.yx*y
Dice Similarity – It is the similarity measure related to Jaccard index. Given two datasets X and Y, then the coefficient is given as
S=2|x∩y|x+|y|
The coefficients are calculated for two strings x and y as
S=2ntnx+ny
where
2ntis the number of character bigrams in X and Y,
nxis the number of bigrams in X,
nyis the number of bigrams in Y.
Hamming Distance – It is the distance between the strings of equal length in which the number of position of the corresponding symbols are different. The hamming distance between the 2 variables (x,y) is given as dH(x,y) to the number of places where x and y are different , it can be given as the number of bits or characters that has to be altered to change one string to another. Hence the Hamming distance between two vectors
x,y∈F(n)is defined by the number of coefficients in which they differ. It measures the minimum number of substitutions needed to change one string to another and the minimum error that occurs during the transformation. Here D should satisfy the condition.
- d(x, y) = 0, iff x,y agrees to all coordinates.
- The number of coordinates in which x differ from y.
- The number of coordinates in which y differ from x.
- d(x, y) is equal to the minimum number of changes in coordinates to get from x to y.
2.5 POWER METHOD
Power method is a simple iterative method to find the dominant eigen value and eigen vector for a matrix A where λ is the largest of eigen value and
v0is the largest of eigen vector. The power method is found using[58]
vt+1=cWvt
Where
vt is the vector at iteration t.
W is the Square matrix
c is the normalizing constant to keep
vtfrom getting too large or too small.
Since the power method for approximating the eigen value is iterative the initial approximation x0 of thedominant eigen vector is chosen. The sequence of eigen vector is given as [59,60]
x1=Ax̅0
x2=Ax̅1
= A (
Ax̅0) =
A2x̅0
x3=Ax̅2
=
A(A2x̅0)=
A3x̅0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
xk=Ax̅k
=
A(Akx̅0)=
Akx̅0
A good approximation is obtained for larger values of k. To analyze the convergence of the power method a detailed formulation is shown. Given an N*N matrix A, the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value is identified. Let λ0, λ1, λ2….. λn-1 be the eigen values of A. The largest eigen value is λ0 i.e. |λ0|>|λ1|>|λ2|……………|λn|. Let there be an eigen pair (λj,
vj) and assume that the vectors
v0,
v1, v2….
vn-1be linearly independent. To start with we take an initial vector at a time 0. The vector is written as a combination of the vector that is linearly independent. Here x(0) is given as a linear combination of eigen vectors. Hence,
x(0) = γ0
v0+ γ 1
v1 + γ 2
v2 …………. γ n-1
vn-1.
If the first vector is written with a matrix A we create
x(1) =Ax(0)
= A(γ 0
v0+ γ 1
v1 + γ 2
v2 …. γ n-1
vn-1)
= γ0 A
v0 + γ1A
v1 + γ1 A
v1…… + γn-1 A
vn
Similarly
x(2)=Ax(1)
= A(
γ0Av0+
γ1Av1 +
γ2 Av2 ….
γn-1A vn-1)
But A
v0 is λ0
v0 and A
v1is
λ1v1since the eigen vectors are chosen[59].
=
A(γ0λ0v0+γ1λ1v1+…..γn-1λn-1vn-1)
=γ0Aλ0v0+γ1Aλ1v1+…..γn-1Aλn-1vn-1)
Here,
Aλ0v0=λ02v0,
Aλ1v1=λ12v1.. . . . …….
Aλn-1xn-1=λn-12vn-1
On repeating for higher values we get,
xk+1=Axk
=
γ0λ0kv0+γ1λ1kv1+……γn-1λn-1kvn-1
Here
Aλ0kv0=λ0k+1v0,
Aλ2kv2=λ2k+1v2…….
Aλn-1kvn-1=λn-1k+1vn-1
xk+1=γ0λ0k+1v0+γ1λ1k+1v1+……γn-1λn-1k+1vn-1
So the general equation becomes
limk→∞xk=
limk→∞(
γ0λ0kv0+
γ1λ1kv1+
γ2λ2kv2……….
γn-1λn-1kvn-1)
Here
γ0λ0kv0 is largest in magnitude and it dominates other vectors. The direction of
v1 is insignificant and vector
v0 keeps on increasing. To fix the increasing value
v0 the vectors should be kept under control. So it is rewritten as [60]
x1=1λ0Ax0
= 1λ0A(γ0v0+γ1v1……..γn-1vn-1)
=γ0 1λ0 Av0
+γ01λ0Av0………….+γn-11λ0Avn-1
Here
Av0=λ0
v0 on substitution we get,
=γ0 1λ0 (λ0v0)
=
γ0v0
Similarly,
Av1= λ1v1=
γ1v1.Hence the first term becomes
γ0v0.
x1=γ0v0+λ1λ0v1+…+λn-1λ0vn-1
x2=1λ0Ax1
x2=1λ0A(γ0v0+γ1λ1λ0v1+……. γn-1λn-1λ0vn-1
=
γ0v0+λ1λ02v1……………
λn-1λ02vn-1
In this case the first term remains the same for any value of x and the next term has the factor
λ1λ02and so on. Here
λ1λ0is the magnitude less than 1. Repeating for k steps we get
xk+1=γ0v0+γ1λ1λ0kv1
……………
γn-1λn-1λ0k+1vn-1
So we get,
limk→∞xk=limk→∞(γ0v0+γ1λ1λ0kv1…………+γn-1λn-1λ0kvn-1)
Here the value
λ1λ0is less than 1 and when raised to the power of k they eventually go to 0. Hence, the 2nd, 3rd and the nth term gradually goes to 0 and left with the first term. So, we get [59,60]
=γ0v0+γ10v1+……γn-1(0)vn-1
=γ0v0
Finally, the component in the direction of
v0is constant and the component in direction of
v1shrinks and points to
v0. Due to normalization the vector avoids itself from growing itself too long or short. Eigen vector is finding the iteration involved and it’s about its length. Thus it is derived that the process produces a vector in the direction that is leading in magnitude. Hence, the power method is given as Ax = λx.
Xi+1 =
Axi||Axi|| λ i+1 =
Axi
2.5.1 Convergence Analysis
The power method does not compute matrix decomposition. Hence, it can be used for larger sparse matrix. The power method converges slowly since it finds only one eigen vector. The starting vector x0 in terms of eigenvector of A is given by
x 0=
∑i=1naivi.
Then, xk=Axk-1 =A2xk-2 =……Akx0
∑i=1nλikaivi= λnkanvn+∑i=1n-1λ1λnkaivi
The higher the power of
λ1λnit goes to 0.That is, it converges if
λ1is dominant and if q0 has a component in the direction of corresponding eigen vector x1 . Power method can also fail to converge in case if |
λ1|=|λ2|. The convergence rate of power iteration depends on the dominant ratio of the operator or the matrix which is challenging when the dominance ratio is close to one [59].
2.5.2 Drawbacks of the Power Method
- If the initial column vector
x0is an eigenvector of A other than corresponding to
ƛ1the dominant eigen value, then it fails or converges to a wrong value [60,61].
- The convergence of the power method depends on the magnitude of the dominant eigenvalue
ƛ1and the magnitude of next largest eigenvalue. If the ratio is small then convergence become slow or can even fail if
ƛ1=ƛ1̅
- It gives only one pseudo eigenvalue and its difficult when it happens to be more than one dimension.
- It is complicated in the case of many eigen values.
- The power method needs a initial guess.
2.6 CLUSTERING ALGORITHM USING POWER METHOD
Power Iterative Clustering (PIC) is an algorithm that clusters data using power method which is used to find the largest of eigen vector a combination of the eigen vectors in a linear manner. PIC provides a low dimensional embedding of datasets. It operates on a graph of nodes connected by weighted edges. The steps involved in PIC includes[6]
a. Similarity matrix calculation which is required in spectral clustering methods is replaced by matrix vector multiplication
b. Normalization to keep the vector constant and not making to converge or diverge and
c. Iterative matrix vector multiplication where the matrix W is combined with the vector v0 to obtain Wv0.
2.6.1 Convergence Analysis
Power iteration converges to a matrix W but the results are not significant. To analyze the convergence of power iteration clustering algorithm, let us consider a matrix W with eigen values
v1,v2∙∙∙∙∙vnand eigen vector
ƛ1,ƛ2..…..ƛn. The PIC algorithm performs power iteration for less number of iteration, an stops at its convergence limit within the clusters before reaching its final convergence. The acceleration at t is given as
δt=vt-vt-1and the vector
∈t=δt-δt-1. The threshold value is
∈̂and the iteration is stopped when
∈tα≤ ∈̂. Hence the convergence can be said as power iteration clustering algorithm converges fast locally and it is slow globally[62]. The convergence rate of the algorithm towards on the dominant eigenvector
ƛ1depends on
ƛiƛ1tfor i=2…k i.e .
ƛiƛ1t≃1since the eigenvectors are close to one.
2.6.2 Disadvantages of Power Iteration Clustering
Power Iteration Clustering is fast, efficient and scalable. It has a better ability of handling larger datasets. Both requires data matrix and similarity matrix to be fitting into the processors memory that is infeasible for very larger datasets. Its challenge lies in calculation and storage of larger matrices [6,62]. Moreover PIC finds only one eigen vector which leads to inter collision problem. Lin and Cohen [6] discovered an interesting property of the largest eigenvector of W, before the elements of vt converge to the constant value, they first converge to local centers that corresponds the clusters in the data[63]. PIC converges quickly at local minima but it’s slow at global minima.
2.7 EXTRAPOLATION METHODS
The requirement for finding the approximate value of the sequence is significant for any algorithm to converge. An important problem that arises often is the computing limits of the vector
xn, where
xn∈CN, N is the dimension and its huge. Such sequence converges slowly or can even diverge. This condition occurs generally for iterative solutions of any linear systems. Hence, the computational complexity is high. In order to address these problems, convergence acceleration techniques like extrapolation methods has to be applied. An extrapolation method produces a new sequence
Ânfrom a given sequence
Anthat converges fast if it has a limit. If it does not have a limit the sequence can either converge or diverge slowly. Some of the most common extrapolation techniques include Richardson extrapolation, Fixed Point Iteration, Aitken Delta Square method and the Steffensen method [8].
2.7.1 Fixed Point Iteration
It is used to determine the roots of the given function. It computes the fixed point of the given iterated function [64,65]. Given a function f with real value an d points
x0in f, the fixed point iteration is given as
xn+1=f(xn)
where n = 0,1,2…..
which has the sequence
x0, x1,…
,xnconverges to the fixed point x. Let g be a continuous function in the interval (a, b) the fixed point is calculated by constantly evaluating g at points (a,b).
2.7.2 Aitkens Technique
It is a method to speed up the convergence of a sequence that is linearly convergent. It accelerates the convergence of any sequence [62]. The advantage of this method is that it improves the linear convergence of any iterative methods.
2.7.3 Steffensen Technique
The method of combining Aitken’s process with the fixed point iteration is called the Steffensen’s acceleration technique. It attains quadratic convergence. Steffensen’s method can be programmed for a generic function on certain constraint [66]. The main drawback of this method is that the value of x0 should be chosen correctly, else the method fails.
2.8 BIG DATA ANALYTICS
2.8.1 Data Deluge
It is a situation where the incoming data is more than the capacity to be managed. The rate of data is growing at a faster rate day by day. The data was about 165 Exabyte in the year 2007. It has reached to 800 Exabyte in the year 2009. There was an increase of upto 62% than the previous year. Moreover in the year 2009 the usage of the internet has been increased by 50% per year and hence the data rate doubles every 2 years[67]. In the year 2011, the term Big Data was introduced by McKinsey Global institute. The scale dataset increased from Gigabytes to Terabytes and even to Petabytes. According to the report from IDC (International Data Cooperation) in 2011, the data created was 1.8 ZB and it has increased 9 times in these 5 years. At present 2.5 quintillion bytes of data are created every day. Google process 100 PB of data, Twitter 12 PB. These huge quantity of data’s are being obtained from social networks, bank transactions, audio and videos etc. in you tube etc.
2.8.2 Big Data Storage Mechanism
Existing storage mechanisms of Big Data may be classified into three bottom-up levels namely file systems, databases, programming models [68].
- File Systems: File systems are the foundation of the applications at upper levels and Google’s GFS is an expandable distributed file system to support large-scale, distributed, data-intensive applications.
- Databases: Various database systems are developed to handle datasets at different scales and support various applications and MySQL technology for Big Data. The following three main MySQL database are key-value databases, column-oriented databases, and document-oriented databases.
- Programming Models- The programming model is critical to implementing the application logics and facilitating the data analysis applications. However, it is difficult for traditional parallel models to implement parallel programs on a Big Data scale.
Big Data Storage –It is a storage method designed to store, manage and to process large amount of data. This data is stored such that it can be accessed easily and processed by applications to work on Big Data. The data storage subsystem in a Big Data platform organizes the collected information in a convenient format for analysis and value extraction. Existing massive storage technologies can be classified as
- Direct Attached Storage (DAS)
- Network storage
Direct Attached Storage (DAS): In DAS, numerous hard disks are connected directly with servers, and data management is held on the server rather than individual machines. The storage devices are peripheral equipment, each of which takes a certain amount of I/O resource and is managed by individual application software. It connects only limited size. The DAS storage is shown in Fig 2.1.
|
Fig 2.1. DAS storage
It has limited service for upgradation and expansion. When the size increases the efficiency decreases. The disadvantages of DAS include undelivered storage, socialisation of data, and dependency on server for replication.
Network Storage: It is to make use of the network to provide users with an interface for data access and sharing. It can be easily expandable. It is classified into two types.
- Network Attached Storage (NAS)
- Storage Area Network (SAN).
Network Attached Storage (NAS): NAS is actually an auxiliary storage equipment of a network and is directly connected to a network through a hub or switch using TCP/IP protocols. It provides a network for data access and sharing. Devices like disk, tapes, and other storage devices are present here. It is expandable and directly connected to the network and data transmission takes place as files. The performance and reliability can be predicted. The advantages of NAS are that it is flexible, scalable, efficient, predictable, highly available reduced cost and easily manageable. The NAS storage is shown in Fig 2.2.
|
Fig 2.2. NAS storage
Storage Area Network (SAN): In SAN, is special designed for storage. Data storage management is relatively independent within a storage local area network, where multipath based data switching among any internal nodes is utilized to achieve a maximum degree of data sharing and data management. It has an efficient bandwidth intensive network,
Distributed Storage System – It uses normal servers which are very powerful. They allow storage similar to databases, operating systems and all other applications [69]. Special devices are not necessary to store these information. Finding an efficient way to develop a large scale distributed storage system for efficient data processing and analysis is great challenge [70]. To use a distributed system to store massive data, the following factors should be taken into consideration
- Consistency (C)
- Availability (A)
- Partition Tolerance (P)
Since consistency, availability, and partition tolerance could not be achieved simultaneously, we can have
- A CA system by ignoring partition tolerance
- A CP system by ignoring availability
- An AP system that ignores consistency
Distribute File System- It stores large unstructured data. Its main purpose is permanent storage and sharing of information. It performs functions like storing, retrieval, naming and sharing etc. It also supports remote information sharing, user mobility, availability [67]. The feature of DFS includes 1.Transparency 2. Performance 3. Scalability 4. Availability. 5. Reliability 6. Security and simplicity.
NOSQL- It stands for Not Only SQL. It an efficient approach for database management and database design. The types of NoSql database include Key Value storage, Document storage, Column storage and Graph storage. It’s a schemaless database. It provides as write-ahead logging to avoid data loss. They are generally fast. Its advantages include flexibility and easy maintenance. It has a huge write performance.
NewSQL- it is a relational form of database for providing high per node performance and scalability. It maintains transactional guarantees. It supports ACID properties. Non locking concurrency control mechanism. It is almost 50 times faster than traditional database [67].
Cloud storage – It is a storage mechanism used for enterprises and other end users. It provides flexible access, easy storage service like Amazon S3, Microsoft Azure. Cloud storage is made of distributed resources. It is highly fault tolerant and durable. The cloud can be private, public or hybrid. Its benefits are they can be accessed any time from any place. It has a remote backup, reduce cost and pay as you go characters. Its main drawback is limited bandwidth which causes a problem of accessing or sharing at low internet speed. It is also less secure in open cloud.
2.8.3 Tools for Big Data
Many tools for Big Data mining and analysis are available, including professional and amateur software, expensive commercial software, and open source software. The most widely used softwares are as follows [71,72,73]
- R – It isan open source programming language designed to compute intensive tasks using C, C++ and FORTRAN. This software environment is specially designed for data analysis and visualization.
- Excel – It is a essential component of Microsoft Office . It provides effective data processing and statistical analyzing capabilities. It is the usually used commercial software.
- Rapid-I Rapid Miner– It is also an open source software. It is used in data mining, machine learning and predictive analysis. Data mining and machine learning programs provided Rapid Miner include Extract, Transform and Load (ETL), data pre-processing, visualization, modeling, evaluation, and deployment.
- KNIME(Konstanz Information Miner) – It is an easy open-source, data integration, data processing, data analysis, and data mining platform which allows users to create data flows in a visualized manner. It is possible to selectively run some or all analytical procedures, and run analytical results, models, and interactive views.
- Weka/Pentaho stands forWaikato Environment for Knowledge Analysis. It is free and open-source machine learning and data mining software written in Java. It supports features like data processing, feature selection, classification, regression, clustering, association rule and visualization.
- Apache Spark- It is a distributed framework to run very large data based applications across clustered computer. Its data repositories include HDFS, NOSQL, and HIVE. It’s based on Hadoop MapReduce. MapReduce can be used efficiently to query and process data. It has high processing speed.
- Tableau- It is a data visualization tool that creates and distributes data in the form of charts and graphs. It connects the files and Big Data sources to process data. It is highly scalable, easy and also fast. The data is connected and displayed as multiple graphic representations.
2.8.4 Applications Of Big Data
- Commercial application: These applications include storing the data in using current techniques like RDBMS. Some of the examples of this include forms of various reports, dashboard, queries, business intelligence, online transaction, interactive visualization and data mining [74].
- Scientific Application: Scientific research in many fields is gaining large data using massive output sensors and instruments, such as astrophysics, genomics, oceanology and environmental research.
- Multimedia application: Multimedia data is the collection of different forms of data that contains valuable information by extracting useful information from them. Some recent research significances include multimedia summarization, annotation, index and retrieval, suggestion, and event detection.
- Mobile Data Analysis– Sensors play a major role for the source of Big Data by displaying its location and it also involves the delivery of the alert messages of patient who are connected to them.
- Big Data in Enterprises– In finance, this application has been greatly developed, while processing enterprises can improve its efficiency, contentment, labor force and cost, precisely forecasting the requirements, and avoiding excess production capacity [75].
- Online Social-Network Oriented Big Data: The application includes network public opinion analysis, collection of network intelligence and analysis, online shopping; government based decision-making support, and other online educational analysis.
- Medical Field Related Applications: It is very useful for the process of storing, retrieving, updating, deleting the medical records of the patients in the health care industries.
2.9 PARALLEL FRAMEWORK
PIC has been implement using the MPI, client server framework and the MapReduce framework. The MapReduce framework is chosen as it address the issues of parallel programming framework. It can process huge amount of data.
2.9.1 Message Passing Interface
The message passing interface (MPI) is a message passing library interface and is the standard for performing communications in parallel programming environments[76]. It is the central model for high performance computing. It has high efficiency and performance for data communications in distributed cluster environments. Its advantages include high performance, scalability, and portability. MPI uses language independent specifications for calls and language bindings.
2.9.2 Client Server Framework
It is a distributed application structure that divides the tasks between the service providers and the service requesters[77]. A host runs one or more server programs which share their resources with clients. A client does not share any of its resources, but requests the service function. Clients and servers exchange messages in a request–response message pattern. The client sends a request, and the server returns a response. This method of exchange of messages between the server and the client is known as the inter-process communication. The communication takes place using standard protocols.
2.9.3 MapReduce Framework
MapReduce is a distributed processing framework
that splits
the
input
into
segments, passing each
segment
to
a
different
machine.
Each
machine
then runs
the
map
script
on
the
portion
of
data
attributed
to
it [9]. The map task gets the data as input and splits it into
2.10 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EXISTING WORK
Various studies have been conducted on the clustering techniques and algorithmic convergence. The algorithm proposed by Ng.A. et al.[4] seems to be more efficient. It uses matrix decomposition to find the eigenvectors. Though finding the eigenvector and eigenvalue is important in linear algebra, the space occupied using this technique is its drawback. The computational time and memory space occupied by spectral clustering algorithms are very large as there is a need of similarity measure calculations.
Fowleks et al. [78] proposed new method Nystrom to avoid the calculation of similarity matrices. Dhillion et al. [79] proposed a method that does not use Eigen vector. The advantage with these algorithms is that they reduce the computational time but the accuracy ratio and memory usage have not been addressed. Lin and Cohen [5] addressed this problem by replacing the matrix decomposition by matrix vector multiplication. They used the power method to find the dominant eigenvector. Anh Pham et al.[80] introduced the deflation technique that finds multiple pseudo eigenvectors. But still the problem lies in convergence of the algorithm. Gianna M.Del Corso [81] has found a solution to this problem of approximation of eigenvectors. It is shown that the rate of convergence is linear to the ratio of the second largest eigenvector.
Ababu Teklemariam [82] has proposed an algorithm that can be used to estimate the linear equation from diverging. Sependar et al.[83] worked on the acceleration of the convergence of power method using quadratic extrapolation. The quadratic extrapolation takes advantage of keeping the first eigenvalue to be one finding the other eigenvectors of the successive iterations using power method.
Newton’s method based on quadratic order of convergence uses first order derivative. It was modified by Steffensen who replaced the first order derivative by the forward difference approximation. Cordero et al.[84] proposed a derivative free iterative method by replacing the forward-difference approximation in Ostrowski’s method [85] by the central-difference approximation. New higher order techniques have also been proposed by Mohamed et al.[86] based on householder iterative method and Halley method. It has higher order of convergence. Also, the new power iteration acceleration method has been shown by chun Liu [87] and a detailed survey has been done by Tahseen A.Jilani et al. [88] On analysis, this work not only focuses on replacing Aitken extrapolation with Steffensen technique but also accelerates its convergence.
In terms of parallel framework many algorithms have been implemented in MPI, a message passing interface. Weizhong Yan et al [62] used this MPI method to distribute data. MPI is usually used to exploit parallelism across various nodes. The MPI mechanism increases the consumption communication between machine and the network. MPI is bound in terms of performance when working with large dataset. They have implemented the parallel PIC algorithm since it is efficient and performs well for communicating in distributed clusters.
More recently, MapReduce a Google parallel computing framework and its Java version Hadoop have been increasingly used. Weizhong Zhao et al. [89] have proposed parallel K- means algorithm based on MapReduce that can scale well and efficiently to process large datasets on commodity hardware. To overcome the deficiencies of existing algorithms for parallel matrix multiplication, Jian-Hua Zheng et al.[90] have presented a processing scheme based on VLC. MapReduce takes advantage of local storage to avoid these issues while working with large datasets. Hadoop supports fault tolerance but it is not the same with MPI. So the work is moved on to the parallel framework MapReduce.
2.11 RESEARCH CHALLENGES
Big data Clustering presents many problems for researchers. The challenge as far as any iterative algorithm considered is it has a problem with its convergence factor. Some algorithms converge slowly. They are not accurate. Their computational complexity is very high. To cope up with the growth of today’s data they have to be refined because they do not have the capability to deal with lager datasets and high dimensionality. Moreover, the problems of parallel architecture like fault tolerance, node failure, etc. have to be addresses. As far as Big Data is concerned its characteristic becomes its challenge. To address this Big Data transfer requires new protocols and algorithms to extract and analyze these huge data.
There is need for new metrics, techniques, analysis for finding relevant data. There is need to develop parallel large scale data analytics library. Each suggest different software and hardware characteristics and their confusion generates machines that do not support parallel machine learning.
There is need for efficient parallel algorithms for multi scale adaptive algorithms reducing time complexity .There is need for solutions to protect and securely process data in the cloud. There is need for more standard algorithms to tackle Big Data challenges.
SUMMARY
This chapter summarized the literature survey on Big Data clustering. Various techniques of clustering Big Data along with its advantages and disadvantages are described in detail. Different similarity and distance measures needed for designing an algorithm is planned. The usage of power method to overcome the disadvantages of the spectral clustering algorithm is presented. A detailed discussion about the power method and its convergence in iterative algorithms are learnt. It is also shown that to address the issues of slow convergence there is a need to induce some acceleration techniques. Hence, a study about the extrapolation techniques was made. Its applicability to Big Data was also considered. The need for distributed architecture is noted to overcome the drawbacks of existing parallel architecture. Based on the above studies the research challenges were identified. New algorithms have been developed to overcome these shortcomings which will be discussed in the next chapter.
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